Foreign assistance in the 1990s and the role of population.
This article identifies the need for a reformulated foreign assistance program, explores alternatives to the current program, and proposes means of implementing alternatives. Reduced budget resource availability, and the growing support, in the US and abroad, for the concept of ecologically sustainable development highlight the inadequacy of the current US foreign aid program. Sustainable development uses as its guiding principle a goal of "meeting the and aspirations of the present without compromising the ability to meet those of the future." Sustainable development should be the foreign policy theme for the '90s, running through every aspect of US foreign assistance, and promoting self-sufficiency and economic viability for developing countries. To obtain this goal a comprehensive redefinition of US foreign assistance and foreign policy objectives is necessary. This redefinition should include a sharper focus for the US Agency for International Development (US AID), under the Foreign Assistance Act, with fewer restrictions and maximum flexibility for design and implementation of projects. The US AID should also stress relationships with other countries in devising plans and dividing up areas of assistance. FUrthermore, technical centers should be the focal point of organization in US AID. Approaches to the implementation of development assistance are discussed, among them--structuring US AID as a grant-giving institution, or as a bilateral or multilateral institution, or diminishing its role and creating an Asian Development Foundation. An approach which would fit with the sustainable development construct is for US AID to target technical areas as well as priority countries. However, each approach has its drawbacks and is driven in part by fund availability. The field of international population and family planning is offered as an example of a successful foreign assistance approach. The factors involved in this model included strong leadership, valuable congressional support, measurability, and flexible approaches, as well as a cadre of trained population officers. An agency focus on ecologically sustainable development includes population programs as a major component.
Trends in fertility reduction efforts.
This article reviews measures of fertility reduction and fertility reduction program efforts used in developing countries, as well as existing trends and differentials in contraceptive use. Of the 12 fertility reduction measures governments use currently, the most common approaches and simplest to implement are the basic family planning programs. However, these vary greatly in their intensity of effort and in their effectiveness. 1982 fertility reduction effort scores for 100 countries revealed great variability within regions. Nonetheless, in general, most African and Middle Eastern countries had low scores with a regional mean effort score of 18 and 24, respectively, while Latin American countries tended toward middle range scores, with a mean of 46, and Asian countries had the highest scores, with a regional mean of 55. Contraceptive prevalence rates cross tabulated with 1982 program effort index and 1970 socioeconomic status (SES) setting index yielded the following results. The overall mean of couples contracepting declined from 59% to 7% as program effort weakened, regardless of SES. Additionally, for all countries, the proportion contracepting declined from 55% to 4% as SES declined. Similar tabulations for crude birthrate, rather than contraceptive use, also revealed that both program strength and SES had strong separate effects. More complex analyses agreed. Multiple regression methods found that 78% of the variation in fertility declines was explainable by program strength alone, while 83% was explained by SES. Hence, the conclusion that it is advantageous to establish efforts toward fertility reduction. The spread of contraception is chiefly responsible for fertility reduction. Recent surveys reveal that in the developing world as a whole, contraceptive use has risen dramatically over the past 20 years and continues to increase, even in the most disadvantaged populations. It has also moved toward more reliable methods, such as, sterilization, which is becoming more prevalent around the world, especially among older married couples and couples with 3 or more children.
Child and adolescent health profile: New York State 1985.
This book attempts to give a comprehensive picture of the health status and needs of New York's population under age 19. It's goal is to provide planners, policy makers, and advocates with key health, demographic, and socioeconomic data for New York state and its 62 counties. Furthermore, it is intended to provide a replicable model for other states to use in obtaining and presenting similar information about their own populations. Over 40 key indicators of child and adolescent health are presented, and grouped into the following 10 categories: population characteristics, socioeconomic status, program participation, health care access, pregnancies, births, and infant health, adolescent health, morbidity, children with special needs, injury, abuse and maltreatment, and mortality. For most of the profile indicators the authors define the indicator, explain its significance for health, and cite important relationships between the indicator and other factors, such as race/ethnicity, age and poverty. Some data are displayed in graphs. However, the data for the majority of the indicators are displayed in tables at 3 levels: 1) for the state as a whole, 2) for New York city and the rest of the state, and 3) for individual counties. Data predominantly cover the calendar year 1985.
Changing demographic characteristics and the family status of Chinese women.
The model developed in this paper extends Bongaarts's nuclear family model into a general one that accounts for both nuclear and 3 generation families, and which is expected to be more widely applicable. In the paper a simulation and comparison of 2 cohorts of women who are assumed to live out their lives under demographic conditions of China in 1950-70 and 1981 is presented. The status distribution and expected years spent in different parities, marital statuses, being the child of surviving parent(s), being a parent of living children, and having responsibility for both elderly parent(s) and young children, etc. are given. The consequences of the dramatic demographic changes are clearly demonstrated. (author's)
Cultural dynamics and economic theories of fertility change.
Cohorts are socialized under a historically specific set of conditions by a unique set of parents, institutions, and peers. Economic circumstances affect the value orientations of the socializing generation, set constraints on family building patterns, and open or close possibilities for cultural diffusion. The demographic cycle of the baby boom and bust can be matched by a cycle of ideational change: individual trust in existing institutions and their regulatory functions during the boom, and accelerated individuation during the bust. The individuation process is continuing among today's younger cohorts in Europe, suggesting an extension of the current period of below-replacement fertility. (author's) (summaries in ENG, FRE, SPA)
U.S. Hispanics: challenging issues for the 1990s.
Hispanics are the largest minority in the US after blacks and, as a poor and disadvantaged minority, face many problems and challenges with which they must deal in the future. There has been a 34% increase in the US Hispanic population from 1980-1988 due to heavy immigration and high birth rates, resulting in a young age structure for Latinos with a median age of 25.5 years vs. the US median of 32.2 years. US Latinos are a very diverse group which includes Mexicans (62%), Puerto Ricans (13%), Cubans (5%), and Central and South Americans (12%), although they tend to be clustered in very few states. Discrimination has plagued this population because of illegal immigration concerns and illegal drug flow problems. Hispanics continue to suffer from poor educational achievement, language barriers, low-paying jobs, and poverty. Cubans have made the most progress so far in all of these areas. Poverty will likely persist into the 1990's. Bilingualism is and will be prevalent as long as immigration continues, but future generations will begin to use English as their 1st language. 17 states, however, have adopted "official English" laws in order to decrease the use of funds for Spanish language services. Using Spanish in school is a very divided issue--some favor bilingual education, some favor the shot-gun English approach. As Hispanics grow into work force age, lack of education will prevent entry into skilled labor. Corporations, however, are taking a bigger interest in bilingual workers. Nationally, Hispanics are beginning to matter as an electorate. The number of Latino elected officials has doubled from 1974 to 1988. The 1990 census may show us that we have been underestimating the number of Hispanics in the US. A higher percentage of future Latin immigrants will be better educated. Policymakers should recognize Hispanic problems and help to promote solutions, in the interest of the American people as a whole.
AIDS and food production in East and Central Africa: a research outline.
AIDS has penetrated at least 42 countries in Africa. Death of Africans usually occurs within 3 years of diagnosis. Not much is currently known about the demographics of the disease or about its impact on economic and social behavior, farming, and food production. There is currently a food crisis in Africa, so it is appropriate to study how much of an impact this disease has on future food production. In order to study the problem, one must predict the spread of AIDS. 2nd, one must infer how labor loss effects current rural production. Labor loss will cause changes in organization of production, technology, and types of crops grown. As a crisis increases, certain groups will be cut out of the food distribution. Characterizations such as these allow the mapping of areas vulnerable to labor loss. Field analysis and modeling must substantiate the theories and predictions. This paper describes the research design which will be used by 2 researchers from the Overseas Development Group of the University of East Anglia to measure the impact of AIDS on food production, working initially in a high HIV - prevalent area in Uganda. (author's modified)
Health information imperatives for Third World countries.
Developing countries, with 75% of the world's population, have very poor networks for health information. Developed countries, on the other hand, have health information clearinghouses, and Drug Information Centers and Services. National libraries are the main source of information and bibliographic control of medical literature. Developing countries have medical libraries but show no interest in organizing and disseminating the information. The few medical publications they have are of low quality compared with Western journals. Third World Nations must use foreign exchange to acquire other biomedical journals. Few of these countries have the ability to abstract and index such information. These problems contribute to poor health delivery service, increase the existence of quackery, increase drug abuse and poisonings, and cause a skewing of the distribution of health care facilities. Mass education, the appointment of health professionals, effective drug and health information centers, and the utilization of information storage and processing systems will serve to facilitate the development of health information systems in the Third World. National funding and funds from private practitioners should allow information centers to be set up. These centers should be networked to speed the spread of health information to the public.
As children survive: dilemmas of aging in the developing world.
Developing countries have supported many programs that help reduce infant mortality, but currently a new problem is emerging: an older population with chronic non-infectious diseases. These areas are currently in demographic transition where population growth is slowing and where there is less money per capita. 57 countries have per capita GNPs of less than $1000 and as a result must ration health care services. Rural-to-urban migration, industrialization, and the breakup of the family, in addition to financial difficulties all impede efforts to treat chronic disease. Lower cost alternative methods of care must be investigated and implemented. Prevention is the mainstay of health care, so more funds should be invested in preventative care. It is difficult to implement prevention in developing countries because of ingrained habits and behavior patterns. No matter how much prevention is practiced, chronic diseases such as glaucoma, breast cancer, hypertension, diabetes, coronary artery disease, and arthritis will appear. Correcting these diseases will be very costly. Productive research is a must, but it must be focused on relevant problems and based on reasonable models. Programs that are planned from research results must be country-specific in order to be effective. Donors should be alerted to this new need and may decide to step in and guide these programs. Transplantation of the new technologies of developed countries tend to overlook available resources and finances. This problem is small and new, so there is time to carefully plan for the future.
Need to confirm HTLV-1 screening assays [letter].
In a November 1988 report, Babona and Nurse cited a 26.5% seropositivity rate when testing sera from Papua New Guinea blood donors for antibodies to HTLV-1. Another lab used the same gelatin agglutination screening assay and compared the results using a more specific western blot on sera from Djibouti. Results showed that of the sera positive by agglutination, only 20% were positive by Western Blot. If the same results are applied to the New Guinea sera, it would mean that only 5.3% of the donors are truly HTLV-1 positive. This study shows that caution must be used when interpreting HTLV-1 screening results.
Need to confirm HTLV-1 screening assays [letter].
Babona, Nurse, and Kazura reported a prevalence of positive results to a screen of sera from New Guinea for HTLV-1. The screen was an agglutination assay. Hndy, Carlson, and Yee tested sera in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands for HTLV-1 by ELISA, and found a similar prevalence of positive results. When testing the same sera by western blot (WB), only a small percentage of the Elisa positives were WB positives. This result may be due to problems with the HTLV-1 WB assay, cross reactivity with other immune complexes or malaria, or an HTLV-1 variant.
Twenty years of A.I.D.'s experience in population.
Internationally over the last 2-3 decades there has been a general decline in mortality and fertility; the use of contraception and the desire to use family planning techniques have been on the rise; the number of countries using population growth control policies and family planning has increased; contraceptive effectiveness, safety, and acceptability have been improved; and population dynamics have been based on much more accurate information. Contributors to population and family planning in developing countries include UNFPA, IPPF, the World Bank, and some governments of developed countries. The US Agency for International Development (A.I.D.) helps to encourage voluntary and informed choice of health, birth spacing, contraception, and child bearing. A.I.D.'s success is due to the amount of expertise and resources it has, its responsiveness to assistance requests, its worldwide network, its multi-sectorial approach toward assistance, and to its innovation. Well planned policy development programs and fertility and contraceptive prevalence surveys are essential to population programs. Improved contraceptive methods and increased support to obtain contraceptive materials have helped increase the safety of family planning. Pilot programs and national family programs reach out to diverse populations. The private sector must be involved in these programs, which must be continually monitored and evaluated. Congressional bipartisan support has been invaluable for the continuation of the population programs. In the future, more donors are needed to help fund more family planning programs. The funds should focus on the best markets for these programs. A.I.D. must continue its collaborations with other sources so that more resources will be available.
Households after divorce: the availability of resources and their impact on children.
This study investigates both the finances of divorced men trying to support 2 households and those of mother-headed 1st families in poverty. A screening question was added to an omnibus survey of 7000 individuals representative of the adult population in England and Wales in 1981. The authors were unprepared for the clarity of the findings. They found a clear move into poverty for non-remarried women with custody of children on divorce, taking reliance on welfare as an indicator of life at the margins of poverty. Of the 52 single parents, none were reliant on welfare payments when they 1st married, 15% reported welfare as their main source of income when they separated, 46% when the divorce came through, and 56% when they were interviewed up to 10 years after the divorce. This final figure offers a sharp contrast to that of 15% on welfare for divorced parents who had remarried. Private transfers of income occurred between households after divorce almost invariably only where there were children, even if these children had already reached independence and moved away. The authors did not find any instance of alimony paid to a childless wife. 2 groups experienced economic problems after divorce: 1) the non-remarried custodial parents with dependent children, and 2) the older mothers, that is, women whose work histories had been affected by child rearing even after the children reached economic independence. In contrast, 2 groups of respondents appeared relatively economically unaffected: 1) the childless divorcees, and 2) the remarried, with children from a 1st marriage or a subsequent marriage, or both.
Dual earner households: women's financial contributions after the birth of the first child.
The stereotype of the post-industrial family with the husband as breadwinner and the wife as full-time housewife no longer accords with reality except for a short period of the life cycle. In most households both husband and wife are likely to be employed outside the home for a large proportion of their lives. This chapter examines a particular type of dual earner household--one in which both parents are employed full-time after the birth of the 1st child. The study group was composed of 184 households in which women on maternity leave said they were intending to return to work and a group of 60 women not intending to work. The women were interviewed when their children were 5, 10-11, 18, and 36 months old. The data suggest that women who stay in full-time employment after maternity leave contribute very significantly to household income. On average, women resuming employment were earning 80% of their husbands' earnings, with little difference between women in higher and lower status occupations. To put it another way, they contributed 44% of total net household income. Men's earnings were more likely to pay for housing, regular bills, and the car, and women were more likely to use their money for shopping, the children, and child care. Women in lower status jobs tended to place greater emphasis on the instrumental aspects of employment, namely money, than women in high status jobs. The situation for women in high status jobs is rather different. Even though many said they went back for the money, for the majority this was not their 1st priority. These women placed greater importance on the expressive parts of their work, the interest of the job and personal fulfillment. If women see themselves as working mainly for the interest of the job they may more easily be persuaded to see their financial contributions as less important to the household than those of their husbands, especially if husbands also have high status jobs. Since women regard the dual earner pattern as consequent on their decisions alone, the costs of both parents working fall to them. This charge on their earnings is 1 way in which women's contributions to the household are marginalized.
More equal than others: women and men in dual-career marriages.
This study focuses on married couples who have corporate careers. Couples both with and without children were interviewed. Couples in which the wife had left the work force to have children and returned more than 6 months later or had quit her job altogether in order to have children were not interviewed. The author's sample was generated with a modified snowball sampling technique to locate appropriate couples. A sample of 42 individuals located in 34 different organizations in the Chicago metropolitan area were studied. Husbands and wives worked in different companies, and were interviewed separately within 10 weeks of each other. Interviews lasted an average of 2 1/2 hours and took place in 1981 and 1982. A semi-structured interview format was used; it was based on a series of open-ended questions followed by intensive probes. Some of Hertz's conclusions follow. 1) The marriages studied have 3 parties of interest--his career, her career, and their joint career as married partners. Negotiations in these marriages shift back and fourth. The marriage requires a clear set of limits on the demands of the other careers, offering the possibility that marriage and family might exert some influence on what employers can ask of employees. But, because dual-career marriages are few in number and because career couples tend to be employed in organizations that are capable of resisting collective demands from management, the influence of marriage on work tends to be reduced to selected incidents of individual resistance or opportunities foregone in order to sustain the balance between his career and hers. Concerns with equity between husbands and wives rarely precede the dual-career marriage. Instead, such concerns commonly follow investments in 2 careers. 2) A correlation seems to exist between the type of accounting system used by dual-career couples and the authority relations within their marriages. In general, those couples who have chosen separate accounting systems have made a step toward altering the traditional balance of marital authority. Autonomy is gained by the expenditure of individual income. 3) The apparent self-sufficiency of the dual-career couple depends on a system external to the family. They must rely on the existence of a category of less advantaged workers for child care and household duties. What appears to be progress for women is really the progress of some women at the expense of equal progress for other women. 4) The women studied went back to working outside the home after childbirth and committed themselves to a system in which a surrogate released them to pursue their careers.
The family in question: changing households and familiar ideologies.
Gittins provides a new perspective on the family using recent feminist and historical research and questions many widely held theories and concepts of the family. She argues that one needs to see the family as a controversial political issue which is much misunderstood because of the failure to differentiate adequately between the ideology of the family and the reality of the variety of ways in which people live and interact. The ideology has to be seen as a historical creation of the urban bourgeoisie which has been a useful and central political tool since the early 19th century. The gap between this ideology and the reality is 1 key reason for what is usually perceived as a crisis in the family. The notion that there is a modern egalitarian family type is challenged. Feminist research has brought the salience of inequality between the sexes and between adults and family to the fore; the prevalence of patriarchal relations makes the notion of there being an egalitarian family untenable. The book attempts to bring together findings from a variety of fields which, while all relating to families, are seldom brought together in 1 volume. Gittins attempts to deconstruct many popular myths surrounding the family by raising a number of questions central to the concept of family itself: 1) how have families changed? 2) Why do people marry? 3) Why do people have children? 4) Does the State reinforce or destroy family solidarity? 4) Why is a woman's work never done? 5) Is the family in a state of crisis?
These are proceedings of the Association for Population/Family Planning Libraries and Information Centers - International 21st annual conference held April 19-21, 1988, in New Orleans, Louisiana. Addresses focus on health and population information. The keynote address includes Culture and Social Forces: Sociological Theory and the Information Base; Trends in the Funding of Population Activities: Whither] or Wither? and Evaluation of Low-Cost Library Software. Sexually transmitted disease information sources were treated with 2 lectures: Issues and Trends in Sexually Transmitted Diseases, including AIDS; and Sexually Transmitted Diseases and Fertility Behavior. Demographic and Health Surveys, and The National Survey of Families and Households provide an update on demographic and family health databases. New directions in surveys and statistical programs are explored with lectures entitled National Health Interview Survey, New Developments in the National Survey of Family Growth; and New Directions in NCHS Surveys and Statistical Programs: Mortality Data. Knowledge of international activities was updated with 2 presentations - Bibliographic Venture in China, and African Library Development Assistance Program of the Center for Population & Family Health.
Population growth and food: some comments.
This chapter reviews, critiques, and expands on Srinivasan's chapter on population and food. The author finds that Srinivasan offers an extremely useful survey of the various projections of the world food situation that have been made since the mid-1970s. The author agrees with Srinivasan's main conclusion from the model results. It would appear likely from the projections of various models reviewed earlier that the demand for food likely to arise from anticipated income and population growth can be met. However, this refers to the demand for food likely to arise from anticipated income growth, and it does not say that this demand will be high enough to meet everyone's basic need for food. In general, the models only go as far as the year 2000, and it is likely that population will continue to grow after that. Also, the projections assume huge investments in agriculture which may not be forthcoming. Even if the projected food output levels in developing countries are realized, many developing countries will not be able to earn the foreign currency to pay for food imports. The author then discusses the country model system of the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) provides an illustration of Srinivasan's statement about the relevance about the relevance of agricultural policies in the industrialized countries for the world food situation. It shows that poverty and undernutrition in developing countries might possibly be reduced by more careful and restrained activities of the the industrialized countries in the world food market. In view of the appalling conditions in which many of the world's poor live, a further analysis of policy changes along the lines indicated seems to be fully warranted.
Human biology: an introduction to human evolution, variation, growth, and adaptability, 3rd edition.
This textbook deals with the nature, origins, development, and causes of human variety, and with the biological organization of past and present human populations. It is divided into 4 sections. These cover some general principles of evolutionary theory, the principle of the Primates, the fossil evidence for human evolution, aspects of Primate behavior, the principles of human genetics as applied to population studies, systematic descriptions of human variation, the nature of human growth and the factors which determine it , varieties of human physique and other constitutional traits, and the ecology of human populations, considered especially in terms of adaptation processes. The book is intended primarily for students of human biology, biological anthropology, human sciences, and medicine, but it should continue to be of value also to everyone interested in the population biology of man.
This section examines the ways in which people differ from one another biologically. Variation is described as it occurs at every level of human and bodily organization: cellular, tissue, and whole body. The authors answer questions concerning the origins, development, causes, and effects of observed differences. No 2 individuals who have ever lived can be exactly the same. The fundamental causes for this variation lie in 1 or both of the 2 basic determinants of our being: the genes inherited from our parents and the infinity of environments which act upon and within individuals from conception to death. This section concentrates upon the heritable biological elements of variability. Environment is also important for life and can be the main cause of variability. Environments can also be inherited, for example through parental influences, and this can raise some extremely difficult problems in analyzing variability. The authors also discuss the molecular basis of genetic variability, the chromosome complement, molecular and classical genetics, simple versus complex inheritance, independent segregation versus linkage, sex linkage, mutation, rare versus common variation, and gene expression.
Human growth and constitution.
The study of growth is important in elucidating the mechanisms of evolution because the evolution of morphological characters necessarily comes about through alterations in the inherited pattern of growth and development. Growth also occupies an important place in the study of the individual differences in form and function in man, because many of these also arise through differential rates of growth for particular parts of the body relative to others. Child growth charts clearly demonstrate that the velocity of growth in height decreases from birth onwards, but that this decrease is interrupted shortly before the end of the growth period--the adolescent or pubertal growth spurt. There is a slight increase in velocity as well between about 6 and 8 years of age--the juvenile or mid-growth spurt. The author also discusses prenatal growth, fitting growth curves, growth curves of different tissues and different parts of the body, organization and disorganization of the growth process, post-adolescent growth, and the human growth curve as a primate characteristic.
Over the long period of time from the first appearance of the genus "Homo" to the emergence of the species "sapiens," frequent adaptations must have occurred to allow survival in the changing environment. Understanding how we have adapted, adjusted, and coped with our natural and social environments through time may be a key to explaining why we function and behave as we do. The author discusses the 2 major approaches to studying man's changes. Human ecology may take 3 forms. Cultural ecology emphasizes the regularities of human behavior, social structures, and values which develop or evolve in response to particular environmental niches or situations. Evolutionary ecology focuses on innate behavior which increases the efficiency of resource utilization. Biological human ecology concentrates on how the natural and cultural environments affected the biological characteristics of given human populations. Human adaptability is devoted to studying how the environment affected the morphological and physiological characteristics of people. This is usually accomplished by means of "natural experiments" which study individuals or groups whose living conditions approximate the conditions required by the experimental design.
The ideal handbook should be comprehensive, balanced, historical, and up-to-date. Although this ideal was kept in mind in designing this handbook, it was impossible to include every topic that many would argue should be in this book, such as social psychology. It was felt that an overemphasis on inclusiveness, balance, and catholicity would make for a certain blandness of tone in the chapters. Each author was asked to balance coverage and selectivity. Each chapter is self-contained. Part I of the handbook deals with theoretical and methodological issues. Chapters 1 and 2 present 2 distinct and in many respects opposed representations of the knowledge in sociology as a social science. Chapter 3 extracts what is arguably the most central organizing concept in sociology--social structure--and traces the vicissitudes of that concept as it has been employed at both macroscopic and microscopic levels of analysis. Chapters 4 and 5 discuss the methodological status of data and its measurement and the problem of inferring causal relationships, respectively, which are the 2 major methodological pillars on which sociological analysis stands. Part II focuses on inequality and is organized according to the major bases of inequality in society: economic, racial and ethnic, age, and gender and sex. The major institutions of society constitute the focus of part III. That section begins with political and economic institutions, the family, and education. The latter provides a bridge to 4 chapters that are concerned with institutions that deal with culture, knowledge and its applications, and medicine. Finally, part IV contains 4 chapters that are best categorized as dealing with social processes and social change. Chapter 19 deals with the organization of social processes around the dimension of space. Chapter 20 reviews recent developments in the familiar sociological subfield of deviance and social control. Chapter 21 deals with the dynamics of social movements. The book concludes with the most macroscopic topic of all, international economic arrangements and their impact on developmental processes within nations.
Inequality and labor processes.
The authors argue that inequalities associated with labor result from bargaining and conflict among workers, capitalists, households, organizations, and governments over the ranking of positions and the sorting of individuals and groups into those ranked positions in the 3 areas of employment categories, jobs, and labor markets. This conflict is carried out within the limits of the contenders' interpersonal networks and the resources found within those networks which are, in turn, profoundly influenced by such demographic matters as population age structure and flows of immigration, and such macroeconomic conditions as the level of aggregate demand, the composition of demand for particular products, the looseness or tightness of the labor market, and the dispensability of particular types of labor. The authors veer away from the quest for One Big Equation specifying relations between labor processes and inequality toward a series of simultaneous contingent relationships. They point to complex relationships surrounding bargaining, resources, and the means of collective action. The links that they draw between their arguments and some of the most vital current traditions in sociology and history hold the promise that the study of inequality and labor processes will break out of its isolation from other sociological problems and be seen as a special case of questions to be asked in many other contexts.
To study the problem of race and ethnicity in terms of societal organizations is to recognize that the institutional processes of ordering actions and relations in terms of given social ends impose constraints on racial and ethnic group interaction whereby inter-group relations are structured, antagonisms are channeled, and group access to rewards and privileges is differentiated. As these processes undergo change, they bring about changes not only in patterns of intergroup interaction but in the differences in intragroup experiences as well. It is important to recognize that significant changes in intragroup behavior and experience may accompany changes in the larger society. A consideration of intragroup behavior is important because in modern industrial society the economic class position of subordinate ethnic group members determines in large measure their perception and definition of the problems of racial or ethnic inequality, the solutions they propose and support to eliminate the problems. The benefits that individual subordinate group members receive from changes in a society's ethnic or racial policies also tend to be related to their economic class position. The authors discuss group formation and ethnic identity, psychological aspects of intergroup boundaries, instrumental explanations of ethnic boundaries, patterns of intergroup contact, economic organization, class process and the cultural division of labor, state structures and group interests, and developmental processes and ethnic mobilization.
Sociology of age is both 1) aging over the life course as a social process and 2) age as a structural feature of changing societies and groups, as both people and roles are differentiated by age. This chapter describes the emerging special field of sociology that crosscuts other sociological fields and shows how these 2 clearly distinct topics are interdependent. Neither can be understood without the other. Aging processes and age structures form a system of interdependent parts, an "age stratification system." The emerging understandings of aging processes, changing age structures, and the complex interplay between them are illustrated in this chapter by both old and new sociological studies. Following the introduction of a conceptual framework for use in locating the works under review, the chapter arbitrarily arranges the discussion of age stratification systems in 3 sections. Studies on aging or the "life course" focus on individuals whose lives are shaped through interactions with the social structures. Studies on age structure focus on age structure of roles - changing as society changes - in which age defines the social locations of people alive at any given time. Linking these 2 sets of studies are studies of cohort flow, as cohorts of people born at the same time not only express changing patterns in the aging process but also form the structures of people who occupy the various roles in the age strata.
The sociology of gender and sex roles has been constructed at the intersection of 2 perennial debates: 1) Do sex differences exist, and if so, what are they? 2) Are gender contrasts primarily due to cultural and social influence or to innate psychological or physical disposition? There are no simple answers, but sociology makes its distinctive contribution by spelling out the issues and developing an appropriate research methodology. To measure sex differences, sociologists have made a major conceptual contribution by specifying the significant dimensions to be compared. Sociologists' distinctive focus, however, is on gender stratification - the conditions that promote social equality or inequality between the sexes. To explain sex inequality, sociologists turn to the surrounding and interacting systems that affect all human behavior - culture and macro- and microsocial structure. At every system level, sociological studies have formulated explanations of gender difference by examining the effects of variation in adjacent systems. Sociology has accurately reflected the complexities and ambiguities that are inherent in the study of gender difference. These debates make for a vital and growing field and deserve celebration as well as continued endeavor.
This chapter reviews contemporary research to show how social knowledge of structured relationships is implemented in the work place. What factors predominate conceptual maps of work? How are these templates reflexively interpreted and operationalized? The author discusses gender and the perception of work, interpretation of educational qualifications, occupational structuring of work, technological determinism of work, job molding, the conceptualization of task activity and its effects, learning theory, expectancy theory, stress and coping theories, the effects of job on person, the buffering hypothesis, and the mediation of job effects. Accumulating evidence indicates that work experience has diverse psychological consequences, including effects on intellectual flexibility, self-concept, world view, and affective states. However, the knowledge acquired in work experience its origin remain ill-specified. At the heart of the issue are the dynamics of social perception. Theories of socialization emphasize the structure of role relationships. This cultural view of role behavior contrasts with ecological views of perception that place role socialization in the context of specific constraints and opportunities for action in an environment. Attention is focused on the competitive exchange relationships learned in the course of interaction with stimuli and agency in role performance.
Except for the industrial era, family sociology has lacked theories that explain world patterns over time. Recent work in historical demography, social history, comparative sociology, and anthropology now suggest how the variables involving food production permit or encourage monogamy, polygamy, and the conjugal or extended family. The stimuli of industrial technology, retirement plans, improved contraceptives, and wives' employment have caused incentives to marry for life and rear children to erode. The economic cement that once bound spouses for life has been replaced by love, a thin glue for a 50 year contract. Current research confirms that since 1960 age at first marriage, divorce, and untraditional household formation are up. Remarriage and fertility are down. These changes pose new questions. Will the division of household labor shift? Will the divorce rate fall, level off, or rise? Can western countries maintain fertility at levels adequate to support their retirement systems? The direct economic benefits of child rearing currently go to the elderly according to their wage-related contributions. The persons who rear the child receive no direct economic benefits. Is child rearing rewarding enough to offset such costs? Does an innate factor drive humans to reproduce regardless of disincentives?
Spatial processes are crucial for understanding social relationships. Spatial mobility and social mobility are linked. Socio-economic status, life cycle stage, and race/ethnicity are reflected in a population's patterns of shifting and sorting. The size, territorial scope, and distribution of units within a system vary with the time and cost in movement. Technological and organizational innovations that reduce the friction of space mean that the expansion of urban systems on a local, regional, and worldwide scale becomes possible. Space is a time-cost variable. An uneven distribution of economic opportunities may develop at local, regional, or international levels. Market forces and advances in transportation and communication technologies continue to organize spatial interactions and exchange. It is also important to recognize that the state influences land use and that non-market forces can shape spatial processes and relations. Lastly, it is hoped that there can be fruitful dialogue between human ecologists and critical theorists.
Development and the world economy.
Theoretical perspectives on development have changed in response to both changing developmental processes and relations between developing and developed countries. Rediscovering the "Sociology of Development", comparative historical approaches, the new comparative political economy, states and markets, development and democracy, accumulation and distribution, and world political economy and national development are discussed. Faith in models of rationality requires rigorous models. The new comparative political economy's agenda respects the diversity and complexity of processes of historical change while aspiring to generalizable explanations. It recaptures the scope of classic sociological concerns but also addresses contemporary policy issues and defines the sociology of development not as simply the study of poor countries but of long-term, large-scale socioeconomic and political change, irrespective of the epoch or region in which it occurs. Such an agenda is essential to the survival of the sociology of development and central to any kind of macrosociological analysis.
At 75 million strong, the baby boomers packed the maternity wards as infants, the classrooms as children, and the campuses, employment lines, and mortgage markets as young adults. Born between 1946 and 1964, they are members of 1 of the largest generations in US history. Some baby boomers are rich, others poor. Not all baby boomers got good jobs--some are still caught in the American underclass of the unemployed, others are stranded in dead-end jobs, trapped behind other baby boomers. Chapter 1 debunks the caricatures of baby boomers by asking some basic questions about the real baby boomers. How have they differed from people who came both before and after, and why? What was so special about their childhoods anyway? Chapter 2 continues the search for the real baby boomers by addressing the growing worry about intergenerational warfare. Because of their size, the baby boomers have been locked in a perpetual buyer's labor pool and seller's housing market: they make less but are paying more. Compared to their parents at the same stage of life, the baby boomers are in financial trouble. Baby boomers have real economic problems, and they do not want to solve these problems by cutting their parents' and grandparents' Social Security and Medicare. The younger baby boomers are different from their older siblings; women are different from men; those who completed a year or more of college are different from the poor and disappearing middle class; and those who served in Vietnam are very different from those who protested. As chapter 3 suggests, this can be a source of great polarization. The greatest gap exists within the baby boom, not between the baby boomers and their parents and grandparents. Nevertheless, the baby boomers do share some common ground. They grew up in the standardized kitchens and houses that came with the building codes of the 1940s, studied the standardized curricula that came with the drive for universal access to education of the 1950s, and lived with the standardized fear that came with atomic bomb drills and the Vietnam War in the 1960s. Chapter 4 analyzes these early memories. Chapter 5 paints a portrait of the baby boom's separation from political and social traditions. Chapter 6 suggests that the baby boom's separation also involves a rejection of party identification as a basis for political decisions and an abiding commitment to individualism, self-reliance, and introspection as a generational style for solving problems. Chapters 7-9 consider the baby boomers' responses to politics and political parties. Chapter 9 concludes that the election of 2016 may be the 1st election in history that will be more than a referendum on a generation than on a party or a candidate.
State of the world, 1989: a Worldwatch Institute report on progress toward a sustainable society.
This 6th annual STATE OF THE WORLD report is being released at a time when more people are being affected by environmental change more than ever before. The destruction of the world's forests is accelerating and deserts continue to expand. Soil erosion is sapping not just agricultural production, but the livelihoods of millions, while the extinction of plant and animal species is rapidly diminishing our biological heritage. The deterioration of the earth's physical condition that has been documented in past volumes of this report is now accelerating. And there is nothing in prospect that will reverse it in the foreseeable future. On the encouraging side, during the past year environmental stories have moved onto the front pages of newspapers, magazine covers, and television talk shows. In the US, devastating heat and drought in 1988 led to the unthinkable--a US grain harvest that fell below consumption. As the evidence of potentially uncontrollable environmental changes mounted, there were scattered signs of national governments beginning to respond. In late October, President Sarney of Brazil announced a 90-day suspension of the tax breaks and other incentives that had spurred the clearing and burning of large tracts of Amazon rain forest. In Lagos, the Nigerian government asked couples to limit the number of children to 4 at most, making it the 1st African country to call for a limit to family size. Notwithstanding these and other national initiatives, the gap between what needs to be done to protect the planet's habitability and what is being done is growing. That is the bad news. The authors conclude this year's report with the notion that the 1990s needs to be the turnaround decade. The looming threats we now face--including climate change, ozone depletion, and population growth--have so much momentum that unless action begins now to reverse them, they will inevitably lead to paralyzingly costly economic consequences and the collapse of social and political institutions.
Users guide to the Office of Population, Agency for International Development, 1989.
This guide to the US Agency for International Development's (USAID) Office of Population gives an overview of its policy, program strategy, funding, and organization of population assistance. The role of the Office of Population is discussed, as well as its relationship to AID overseas missions, its organization, and project activities. An index lists projects of Policy Development Division, Research Division, Information and Training Division, Family Planning Services Division, and Commodities and Program Support Division. Directories include phone numbers for persons in the Office of Population, cooperating agencies, and USAID missions. Technical assistance and family planning program resources are provided to developing countries through a wide range of USAID activities that include family planning assistance, information, education and training programs, policy analysis, and 4 broad areas of research: demographic, social science, operations, and biomedical. Service delivery and supporting research have the highest priority for the Agency. Congress appropriates funds for population assistance under the Population Planning Section of the foreign Assistance Act. In 1988, the population budget amounted to $232 million. AID funds accounted for almost 1/2 of the external population assistance available to developing countries from all bilateral and multilateral sources in 1988.
Statistical supplement, Department of Health, State of Hawaii, 1987.
This report contains 1987 vital statistics of Hawaii as well as information from the Hawaii Tumor Registry, the Health Promotion and Education Office, the Hawaii State Health Planning and Development Agency, the Family Health Services Division, the Communicable Disease Division, the Dental Health Division, the Environmental Protection and Health Services Division, the Medical Health Services Division, the Mental Health Division, the Refugee Screening Project, and the Waimano Training School and Hospital Division. Some highlights of the data follow. 1) The resident mid-year population of Hawaii increased 1.7% from 1,064,732 in 1986 to 1,082,502 in 1987. 2) Total live births increased to 18,690 in 1987. 3) A total of 329 live multiple births was recorded for 1987. 4) The median birth weight of single live births for 1987 was 7 pounds, 5 ounces. 5) The median age of parents of babies born in 1987 was 26 years for mothers and 29 years for fathers. 6) The ratio of male to female live births was 107.6. 7) Of the 18,555 resident births, 255 (1.4%), were reported to have 1 or more congenital malformations at birth. 8) There were 213.4 illegitimate births per 1000 live births in 1987. 9) There were 6490 total deaths in 1987. 10) The resident infant death rate for Hawaii was 8.8/1000 live births. 11) There is a maternal death rate of .5/10,000 live births. 12) The 3 leading causes of death occurred at the rate of 185.9/100,000 for heart disease, 130.8 for malignant neoplasms, and 41.7 for cerebrovascular diseases. 13) Spontaneous abortion occurred at the rate of 72.1/1000 live births for Hawaii; the induced abortion rate was 319.3/1000 live births in 1987.
Biosocial perspectives on the family.
This volume contains chapters by noted experts in their fields, representing a continuum from the more proximate mechanisms of biological input to the more distal, evolutionary explanations. Topics covered include 1) the family and the biological base of human sociality; 2) biological influences upon the development of sexual orientation; 3) odor communication and parent-child interaction; 4) concealed ovulation, menstrual synchrony, and paternal investment; and 5) sociobiology and the study of family conflict. The final 3 chapters constitute contributions from authors who were asked to use the previous chapters as a starting point for their own thoughts and critique.
Sociobiology and the family: a focus on the interplay between social science and biology.
This chapter responds to the previous chapters in this book. Human sociality cannot be purely biological because any explanation of human behavior must also incorporate intentionality. Far more useful than merging biology and the social sciences or resisting such a merger, would be a clearer focus on the feedback of interaction processes by which biological and environmental forces jointly determine behavior. A purely biological account of human functioning is incomplete because it presents a static picture of the factors involved in the production of behavior. The true engine of development is the point of intersection between unfolding biological agenda and the processes involved as the individual actively makes sense of his or her environment. The incorporation of biological considerations have taken 2 main pathways: "bottom up" and "top down." A leading example of a research area transfused by incorporating biological principles ("bottom up") is the study of parent-infant interactions. The attachment relationship seems to be the result of an active, rather than passive, adaptation to a biologically primed developmental agenda. "Top down" examples would include recent theoretical reformulations of behavioral domains in which biological considerations have been incorporated in a nontrivial way. An unwavering focus on the interaction of biology and environment is the most promising approach to understanding individual and family behavior. Social science and biological variables are in constant interplay with each other. The ultimate goal would be cross-disciplinary research in which the assumptions and views of both biology and social science are viewed as equally valid and significant. The challenge to biological and social science researchers is to develop methodologies adequate to the task of investigating how, over time, biological and social science variables actually impinge upon and change one another.
Sociobiology and the family: promise versus product.
This chapter assesses the prospects for sociobiology in the study of the family and suggests what can be done to convert sociobiology's potential into product. It also indicates some unresolved problems in the general model and its application to the human family. The author defines and contrasts proximate and ultimate causation. Proximate causation is the short-term or immediate causal explanation which considers how the behavior arose, while ultimate causation considers why that feature was adaptive. Even together they do not account for all human behavior. An example of ultimate (or evolutionary) theory is menstrual synchrony which created a low mate ratio. The author discusses the Fabes and Filsinger chapter included in this book which reports that human beings have an important chemical-odor communication channel. The findings of the Fabes and Filsinger chapter call for interpretation in an ultimate sense. The author speculates about such topics as 1) why there is a differential sensitivity to smell and 2) whether deterrent odors preserve infant life by encouraging father avoidance. More work should be done to establish the degree and character of innateness in parent-child odor communication. In the current industrial or postindustrial environment, danger exists in making proximate claims as if ultimate cause-adaptation were still occurring. Future directions in research using sociobiology include: 1) cooperation and conflict (Sociobiology's prediction of moderate competition arises from an evolutionary perspective of ultimate causation and inclusive fitness where parents' and children's interests are not identical); 2) gender conflict, which includes the tug-of-war over gender differential time and effort investment in offspring; 3) reproduction; 4) sexuality; 5) sex roles; 6) coevolution of biology; and 7) phenomena associated with attraction bonding and sexuality. Familial explanation is only complete if it includes consideration of sociobiological explanations of the family.
Nock concentrates on families in the American context. He discusses the essential theoretical framework employed by sociologists who study the family and presents an extended discussion of worldwide variations found in family structures and functioning. The 1st 3 chapters discuss the varieties of families and ways of studying them. Chapters 4, 5, and 6 form a section entitled Family Formation and Dissolution, and 7, 8, and 9 form a section labeled Family Transitions. The final section, The Family and Other Institutions, includes chapters on education, the economy, the state, and religion. The chapter on economy discusses issues of family economics, family budgets, poverty, labor force behavior, prestige, and time-use. Family law, family policy, and welfare programs are considered in detail in the section on the state. The education chapter includes a discussion of the social importance of age, of the timing and importance of life-cycle transitions, of the conflict between parents and schools over the content of the curriculum, and family influence in academic success. The chapter on religion considers the religious aspects of marriage, fertility, socialization, divorce, and sex roles. It also includes descriptions of the typical family patterns found among Catholics, Jews, and Protestants in the US.
When the divorce rate began to climb in the mid-1960s, it was, and still is, accompanied by a high remarriage rate. The majority of remarrying couples bring at least 1 child from a previous union to the new marriage. The majority of these remarried families face insurmountable obstacles. This fact is reflected by a redivorce rate of about 60%, 10% higher than the divorce rate for first-married couples. In this book the authors detail the ways that remarriage differs from 1st marriage. An introductory chapter calls attention to the key features that distinguish remarriages. Chapter 2 presents a historical account of how remarriage differed in different eras. Different rates of remarriage for males, females, blacks, and whites, and for people with different education and income levels are reported. Chapter 3 identifies several important family processes associated with marriage and shows why these processes are more complicated in remarriage. Types of remarriages are identified and analyzed. Chapter 4 examines the effects of cohabitation on remarriage. Marital satisfaction of first-married and remarried couples is compared and difficulties of merging 2 households are discussed. Chapter 5 describes problems and satisfactions couples experience when bringing children into the new marriage and explores how remarriage and stepfamily life affects children's development. Problems in stepfamily relationships and influences of friends and extended kin are dealt with in Chapter 6. The final chapter focuses on research and emphasizes caution in interpreting the findings from the early studies on remarriage and stepparenting. This chapter also calls attention to the special methodological problems facing scholars who study this topic.
Love in America: gender and self-development.
Cancian examines traditional marriage, independence, and interdependence. She describes how they developed historically and how they are shaping contemporary close relationships. Middle-class marriage is the book's major focus, but cohabiting couples and working-class marriage are also examined. The book has 3 parts. Part I presents the historical development of feminine and androgynous love. She traces the split between feminine love and masculine self-development in the 19th century and then describes the 20th century trend from family and gender roles to self-fulfillment, flexible roles, and androgynous love. Cancian argues that the negative evaluation of most scholars rests on theories that exaggerate the benefits of constraining rules and fixed family and gender roles. Part II examines feminized love in contemporary close relationships. A feminine image of love continues to be influential in popular culture and academic studies; love is identified with emotional expression, not practical help, and women are expected to be responsible for close relationships. This feminization of love encourages women to be dependent and preoccupied with relationships, and men to be independent and preoccupied with work. Illness and premature death for both men and women result, as does intense conflict in marriage between women who want more closeness and men who withdraw. Part III focuses on the new, more androgynous images of love that combine love and self-development and give both partners responsibility for the relationship. Cancian concludes that the trend from role to self will continue, and androgynous love will be more important. This trend may lead to more interdependent relationships or more independence and isolation. The outcome depends partly on economic and political changes in the wider society.
The proximate determinants of fertility in high fertility countries.
4 proximate determinants account for most of the variance in fertility across populations: proportions married among females, duration of postpartum infecundability, contraceptive use and effectiveness, and prevalence of induced abortion. In those high fertility countries with low contraceptive prevalence it is particularly important to study the impact of the other proximate determinants and the manner in which they interact with local customs and behavior. In addition, as use of effective contraception becomes more widespread in these countries, incipient declines in fertility are often counterbalanced by shifts in other determinants, such as breastfeeding behavior. This note examines the proximate determinants of fertility in diverse settings in sub-Saharan Africa, India, and Mexico. Reports from 7 research projects shed light on the dynamics that contribute to the transition form natural fertility to a decline in the size of families. (author's)
Papers presented at the Conference of National Experts on the Future of Migration share common conclusions: 1) that man is naturally mobile and migration therefore must not be regarded as an abnormal phenomenon disturbing the natural order, 2) that history shows that migratory movements take on a different coloring in space and time, and 3) that researching the future of migration calls for a knowledge of the present situation in relation to past trends. Topics discussed is this compendium include 1) the trend of migratory movements, 2) the migrant's position in host and home countries, 3) demographic trends which differ between developed and developing countries, 4) technological trends, and 5) migration policies to be applied nationally and internationally.
Long-term aspects of international migration flows: the experience of European receiving countries.
Many developed countries wish to restrict immigration in order to protect nationals. For less-desirable positions, however, it is often difficult to replace a foreign worker by a national. Thus, immigration is tolerated. A more flexible labor market with increased inter-sectoral and inter-occupational mobility would require modifying the status or content of existing jobs and creating new ones. Managing new flows of both skilled and unskilled legal immigrants and containing illegal immigration remain problems. Given the complexity of current migratory dynamics, xenophobia, and periods of unemployment, it is not easy to reconcile the needs of the economy, the economic, political and social integration of foreigners, and public discontent. A wait-and-see policy is often adopted in preference to a proper labor force reallocation policy which might adversely affect certain categories of national worker.
The experience in the main geographical OECD areas: European sending countries.
This paper examines the short-term and long-term consequences of migration as seen by the sending countries Greece, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, and Yugoslavia. Major factors such as remittances, balance-of-payments disequilibrium, internal financing of investment consumption, migration, unemployment, human capital shortages, and the general effects of migration on growth and modernization of the sending countries' economies are discussed. Anticipated long-term, positive modernization effects on the economies and societies of sending countries as a consequence of workers' migration proved instead to be perpetuation of the balance of payments disequilibria, inflation, and structural imbalances. Some sending countries are in a worse position now since they must confront rising numbers of returnees. The author suggests that a policy of migration-related development should include measures conducive to monetary stability, bringing into existence the fundamentals of economic and administrative infrastructure throughout the country, and enhancing the administrative system's efficacy and commitment to improving of local and regional development.
The experience in the main geographical OECD areas: non-European receiving countries.
The author examines the major similarities and differences between 3 traditional countries of immigration: Canada, Australia, and the United States. Immigration in national mythology, political systems and immigration, the evolution of immigration policies, and the modern age of immigration in these countries are discussed. The immigration lessons to be learned from these nations' experiences such as 1) universality and the rule of law, 2) selection system and the control of volume, 3) immigration refugee management: ways of involving the public, and 4) the management of pluralism are also pointed out. The author concludes that low fertility in the developed countries and population explosion in the Third World, disparities between rich and poor countries, and the rise of China and Japan as superpowers are likely to have a considerable effect on immigration and race relations in the near future.
Demographic trends and international migration.
The authors discuss past and future trends in population growth, employment, and migration, and give a comparative evaluation of population growth by migration area. Migration will continue to weigh heavily on the developed countries, because no borders are completely impenetrable. Economic development should be fostered in the countries of origin, as should better North-South cooperation in trade policies and financial and organizational structures. Raising the per capita income of the developing countries, which are already the most highly populated markets, will also substantially benefit the more developed countries. Whether more intensive cooperation comes about as a result of a civilized sense of responsibility, or as an economic choice, or out of necessity, there seems to be no other alternative open to the countries of the North.
The implications of growing economic interdependence.
This paper examines the relationship between economic development and migratory flows. Empirical tests of economic and migration theory as applied to the experience of the US and Mexico are presented. Within the context of economic interdependence and migration the authors discuss international economics and migration, trade, capital flows, domestic economic policy in sending countries, world systems, statistical considerations, and economic migration. The authors propose a set of assumptions that can be the basis for speculation about future migration. There are 2 major conclusions with respect to economic speclation and formal modelling: 1) it is unwise to anticipate a significant easing of immigration pressure for at least the remainder of this century, and 2) the more favorable the setting, the more likely it is that emigration pressures will ease in the longer-term in advanced and developing countries.
The labour market position of migrants in selected European receiving countries.
The differences in socioeconomic position and development between Northwest Europe and the Mediterranean area established the field of force in which the migration flows between the 2 areas could develop. However, the socioeconomic features were not equally strong for all the countries of either area, so the forces did not affect all countries of origin or destination equally. Among the receiving countries different proportions of Mediterranean migrants in the total population are found, and the proportion of emigrants elsewhere in Europe is not the same for all sending countries. The authors provide discussions and tables for 1) the framework of socioeconomic influences in which migration from the Mediterranean area to Northwest Europe occurs, 2) the length of the Mediterraneans' stay in Northwest Europe, 3) the distribution of Mediterraneans settled in Northwest Europe among branches of activity and the skill level of their work, and 4) some expectations about the future labor market position of the Mediterraneans settled in Northwest Europe.
Migrants and the labour market: the Australian evidence.
The Australian immigration experience is perceived to be a large-scale experiment in legal migration. The author discusses employment and the employment effects of migration, aggregate employment and unemployment, wages, and migrants in the Australian economy. The conclusion is that migration has not operated to the disadvantage of the host labor economy. There has been a positive net employment benefit and no wage loss resulting from the Australian immigration program. Migrants themselves have benefited considerably. They enjoy equal legal and political rights and have been fairly treated in the labor market. Fears of an emerging migrant-based underclass or secondary labor markt are unfounded. Recent Australian research on labor market aspects of immigration conclude that a liberal immigration resettlement program can often achieve the greater happiness of the greater number.
The integration of migrants: experience, concepts and policies.
There is a close and mutual dependence between the regulation of immigration and the successful integration of immigrants into a host society. The authors discuss the basic approaches to both permanent and temporary integration and lessons and policy options that can be derived from the immigration experiences of the United Kingdom, Sweden, Germany, Canada, and the US. Topics include integration as it relates to the legal status of foreign residents, employment, housing, political rights and naturalization, migrant women, racism, prejudice, discrimination, trade unions, public opinion, and old and new immigration countries. A broad, multi-disciplinary approach is required when studying the integration of migrants in their host countries. The authors also point out that migrants today have the advantage of affordable international transportation to maintain links with their home countries.
Migration in Southern Europe: an overview.
The migratory situation of Southern Europe seems to be at a turning point, with the traditional migration of labor being replaced by a true economy of exchange comprising the movement of goods and persons between Northern and Southern Europe, and the development of a new multiform immigration from the Third World. The emergence of migration from outside Europe, which affects even Southern Europe, shows that the question of the future of migration cannot be excluded from the global debate on North-South relations. That important issue cannot simply be reduced to the problem of controlling the frontiers on Europe's southern flank. It requires action on the deeper causes of these phenomena and real development policy based on cooperation between the countries of the Third World and the European Member countries of the Organization for Economic and Cooperative Development. (Author's modified)
The oil-producing countries of the Middle East and North Africa.
This study defines a "new" immigration where foreign manpower is recruited on fixed-term contracts in the country of origin, in teams whose numbers and skills are set in advance by the national or international firms requiring labor for their projects in Arab countries. Illegal immigration by individuals without proper work permits is virtually impossible. This presents the issue of migration in quite new terms because it is carried out in new ways and brings migrant workers into contact with cultural, institutional, social, and economic patterns quite different from those found in Western Europe. The new procedures and problems are examined here in the context of two sending countries, Portugal and Turkey. The motives for emigration are discussed, as well as categories of migrants, the geographical origin of new migrants, their problems, transport and living conditions, difficulties in the new pattern, the impact on host countries and countries of origin, the impact on Portuguese and Turkish firms operating in the Arab countries, and the disposition of new migrants' earnings and savings.
Migratory movements have ceased to act as a safety-valve for the Italian economy. the traditional outflows have bee drastically reduced while at the same time unprecdented immigration from developing countries has reached levels that can no longer be ignored. The arrival of these new migrants has added to the pressures on the domestic lobor market, highlighting more fundamental problems such as the failure of certain sectors to modernize, the scale of the informal economy, and the need for social welfare reorganization. The poor living and working conditions of the illegal immigrants have become a cause for public concern. The draft legislation currently under discussion represents an initial attempt to tackle the problems involed.
Illegal immigration to Greece.
Although the numbers of illegal immigrants in Greece are still quite small, the problems that they pose are already apparent. The immigrants themselves face the difficulties of illegal migrants everywhere: insecurity of employment, no social security, and a high degree of social and cultural isolation. The presence of foreign workers is perceived as encouraging the informal economy and helping to keep down wages - to the detriment of both nationals and immigrants. There should be closer control of the informal economy, better inspection of working conditions, and a general improvement in the whole framework of employment. To remedy these problems, a system should be devised by which aliens can be granted legal status, while restricting entry of new migrants. Attention should also be paid to the education of the second generation. Taking into consideration the underlying causal factors of migration would help to face the foreign manpower problem in Greece in an integrated way.
An AIDS curriculum for family planning workers in Africa: need, design, and plans for field testing.
In response to the serious threat posed by the AIDS pandemic, INTRAH (the Program for International Training in Health of the University of North Carolina School of Medicine) has developed a training module on AIDS for pre-service or in-service training curricula of family planning and maternal/child health personnel. Family planning workers are particularly well situated to intervene in the spread of AIDS, as it is family planning workers who counsel on the use of condoms, on the risk of unprotected intercourse, on the dangers of sexually transmitted diseases and on sexual matters in general. This module, prepared for the typical family planning or health worker in Africa, takes account of the isolated, under-financed and discouraging circumstances of the typical public clinic. While the nurse or health care worker may have the advantage of familiarity with local customs and mores, she or he must work relatively autonomously and with few supplies and virtually no laboratory support, including HIV testing. In 1987, INTRAH developed a prototype AIDS training module in which these realities were given close attention. Also it was consciously based on adult learning theory, which uses the androgogic approach which is "to motivate the learner to engage in a lifelong process of discovering what he needs to know" as against the pedagogic approach of the "transmission of knowledge from 1 generation to another". Plans for formal field-testing of the module are under way. 1 limitation of the module is that it does not adequately address the development of worker's attitudes in dealing with AIDS. It should allow ample time for participants to express their fears and uncertainties; plans are under way to amplify the section of the module that deals with attitudes. Other steps that are critical to the control of AIDs include public policy changes. Some are already under way, e.g. the recent Japanese legislation that makes it illegal for anyone with AIDS to engage in sexual intercourse, the Kenyan government's promotion of monogamy in a country that has traditionally accepted polygamy, and the IPPF's recent statement that globally encourages mutual monogamy acknowledging the fact that condoms are not 100% effective.
This editorial explains the political and economic factors that have led to the shortage of condoms in Brazil, where relaxed social mores and pleasure-driven tourism have combined to make this developing country a breeding ground for the AIDS virus, with 4,000 cases of AIDS reported since 1982. While the Brazilian government has sponsored a public relations campaign urging people to wear condoms, Brazilian manufacturers manage to supply less than 100 million condoms annually, 1/40 the number needed if all Brazilian males ages 15-50 would use condoms. Brazilian manufacturers do not meet this demand because they do not want to be publicly identified with the AIDS virus and its stereotypical carriers, and because they cannot afford to increase their manufacturing capacity at a time of 600% annual inflation and slow economic growth. Also, although Brazilian rubber is high in minerals and thus prone to holes, making the condoms nationally produced unreliable for protection against AIDS, Brazil prohibits importation of better latex due to its US$113 billion in foreign debt. The same prohibition against competing imports precludes Brazilians from purchasing foreign-made condoms. And donations of condoms, proffered already by such sources as the U.S. Agency for International Development, have fallen through because the US cannot provide aid to nuclear powers, such as Brazil, that have not signed the nuclear non-proliferation treaty. Meanwhile, foreign investors who might invest in Brazilian condom production have been put off by the same 600% inflation, high national debt, and slow economic growth that stymies Brazilian condom manufacturers. The complications and resulting condom shortages that beset Brazil are common to many developing countries. Given that the World Health Organization predicts up to 3 million cases of AIDS worldwide in the next 5 years, it behooves politicians and health leaders to act vigorously and immediately to overcome these obstacles to distribution of the only known AIDS preventative.
Women's choices of health agents in Tanzania.
As the primary health care decision makers for their families, women make decisions that can be analyzed to determine the health care needs of communities, and how to improve health care systems. Standardized interviews and informal discussions were used to analyze the health care decisions of 60 women from 3 villages in the Iringa region of Tanzania. An introductory section describes the Tanzanian government, and international agencies providing primary health care in Tanzania. 1 village, Luduga, had higher utilization of biomedical services. This village has a higher rate of miscarriages and stillbirths, and problems with pregnancy was the most common reason for delivery in a hospital. Distance from the hospital site did not appear to be a major factor affecting attendance. In Luduga, little knowledge of traditional medicine has been retained, compared to the other 2 villages where the biomedical health system is used less often. The role of traditional birth attendants appears to be changing, as many traditions remain intact in Makangarawe, but in Luduga they simply escort women to the hospital. Despite the presence of a local dispensary in Luduga, women consider the care their inadequate, and prefer to travel 2 hours to a mission hospital. Local government opposition to traditional medicine appears to have contributed significantly to its decline in Luduga.
Applicability of fertility estimation techniques on Ethiopian data.
Both the 1st National Sample Survey (NSS1; 1964-1967) and the 2nd National Sample Survey (NSS2; 1968-1971) of Ethiopia were utilized to estimate fertility levels, however the rates seemed to be too low. The techniques of fertility estimation were evaluated for applicability and estimates were then made for the 1981 data of 80% of the rural area of Ethiopia. Fertility level is estimated by crude birth and total fertility rates. The methods of analysis are: 1) The Brass P/F Method which compares recorded rates to retrospective fertility data. This method shows variations in fertility rates depending on the adjustment factors. The adjusted crude birth rate was estimated as 50.3/1000. The TFR ranged from 9.1-7.5 in 1981; 2) The Brass Relational Gompertz Method is based on the mean number of children ever born and those born last year. The TFR estimated the fertility at 6.4 in 1981; 3) The Arriaga-Mortara Method transforms number of children ever born into current fertility estimates through a 9th degree polynomial. The TFR value for fertility in 1981 was 6.2 4) The Arriaga-Brass Method: converts reported period fertility pattern into fertility pattern at the birth of the child. Weighted averages of several age groups are used to estimate fertility. The rural TFR was estimated at 7.9--similar to method 1; 5) Rele's Method estimates fertility levels and determines trends of fertility levels from the child-woman ratio. The TFR=6.9 in 1981; 6) Carrier and Hobcraft Method shows the relationship between the child-adult ratio and the mean reproduction rate, the TFR=6.5 in 1981. A comparison of the 1967, 1970, and 1981 data showed a higher fertility level in 1981. This may be due to improved data quality. The different methods yielded different results, since each makes different assumptions. High fertility is expected in Ethiopia since marriage occurs early and is universal, fertility early and extends to the end of the reproductive period. Ethiopia is rural and encourages proliferation, and the population is relatively illiterate. Those methods which give low values for fertility should be scrutinized more closely. None of the methods should be taken at face value unless other data substantiates the conclusions.
Biological and behavioral determinants of exceptional fertility levels in Africa and West Asia.
"Countries with fertility rates well above the levels expected on the basis of their contraceptive prevalence rates include Kenya, Rwanda and Zimbabwe in sub-Saharan Africa, and Jordan..., Syria and Yemen...in West Asia, whereas a notable example of a country with low fertility in Africa is Gabon. The present analysis of the behavioral and biological proximate determinants of natural fertility--breastfeeding, abstinence, marriage and infertility--yields insights into these exceptional cases, and underscores the relevance of variables other than contraceptive use in interpreting levels and trends of fertility, particularly in countries in the early phases of the fertility transition." (EXCERPT)
The prevalence and aetiology of infertility.
"We shall review the information on the prevalence of infertility in different regions of the world and consider aetiological factors explaining regional variations in infertility rates. Data from a large multinational standardized clinical investigation of couples consulting for infertility point to the relative contributions of different aetiological factors; of these, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are identified as the major preventable cause. The mechanisms by which STDs can cause infertility in the male and female are summarized from available epidemiological evidence." (SUMMARY IN FRE) (EXCERPT)
[Fertility north of the Sahara: an application of the Bongaarts model]
Trends in fertility in Northern Africa are analyzed "based on the results of the application of the Bongaarts Model to the fertility data collected in three North African countries (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia) between 1979 and 1986." The accuracy of the Bongaarts model is critically examined, and suggestions are made for improvements. (SUMMARY IN ENG) (EXCERPT)
Improving censal accounting of female workers.
The author assesses the collection of labor force statistics, particularly the quality of data on women in developing countries. She tests "1) the extent to which the standard census procedure distorts the portrait of [female labor force] participation, mainly in the agricultural and the informal sector, 2) the effects of various factors assumed responsible for it, and 3) the adequacy of an alternative procedure which follows closely the [International Labour Office] standards and is able to be applied in censuses." (SUMMARY IN FRE) (EXCERPT)
Treatment of incomplete abortion: prevention and management of immediate complications. Abstract.
Abortion is historically associated with high mortality, although current techniques somewhat alleviate this problem. There are 30-35 million estimated induced annual abortions worldwide--one in every 5-10 pregnancies. Over 1/2 of the abortions are in developing countries where safe techniques are rarely used. Incomplete abortion is a common gynecologic emergency in Third World countries. Complications of incomplete abortion include septic abortion, retained products of conception, hemorrhage, cervical or uterine damage, and toxic reaction to drugs or chemicals. Most of these complications occur because of restrictive abortion laws and lack of family planning. Training of medical personnel is definitely necessary, but specific policies must also be implemented in order to decrease or eliminate clandestine abortions. Countries with liberal abortion laws and qualified medical help have much lower mortality rates.
Reproductive tract infections (RTI's) can cause infertility, ectopic pregnancy, fetal wastage, low birth weight, and congenital infection. In developing countries, RTI's can affect the status of a woman as well as her health, although RTI's can readily be treated and prevented. Gonococcal infection of women in the Third World is minimally 5% and sometimes reaches 10-20%. Chlamydial cervicitis and bacterial vaginosis (BV) have been shown to reach 2-23% and 20-35% in Africa and Asia respectively. If these 2 infections are untreated, the women may develop upper tract infection which may result in pregnancy complications. In these Third World nations, infection probably is significant in determining reproductive morbidity. 15-40% of those women who are hospitalized suffer from upper tract infection. African women are hospitalized mainly for pelvic infection (PID), a sexually transmittable disease, Southeast Asians are mainly affected by post-abortal infection. 50-80% of African infertility seems to be post infectious. 15-39% of Asian infertility is due to infection. Implementation of diagnosis and therapy seems appropriate in these Third World areas. Further research on developing country RTI's must focus on clinical and programmatic aspects of RTI's. Costs of integrated care and diagnostics must be evaluated.
Ethical perspectives on unwanted pregnancy. Abstract.
The principle of individual liberty ("an individual has a right to freedom of decision and action...") the utilitarian principle ("...great good for the greatest number..."), and the principle of justice (equal access to goods and services for basic human needs) are the 3 ethical principles used to address the impact of unwanted pregnancy. Natural right (the right not to be coerced or interfered with) and social rights (governmental obligation to provide basic social goods and a decent standard of living) can be applied to reproductive rights. Individual liberty may interfere with the father's and the fetus 'rights,' however, since the fetus is part of the woman' body, this grants her and not the father the right to decide whether to abort. Fetus rights are very controversial since "personhood" has not been clearly established for any particular developmental stage. Utilitarians must calculate risks and benefits of an abortion. If safe legal abortions are unavailable, then the question of mortality vs. the risk of having the child is addressed. Countries with liberal abortion laws must ensure access to safe medical services. Worldwide agreement on these ethics is probably impossible because they are based on faith rather than on logical analysis. However, there has been acceptance of the above 3 ethics by the United Nations since 1968. These principles, if applied, can help to promote social change.
Because of religious and other proscriptions, Indonesia and other countries have enacted laws forbidding abortion. Women in Indonesia have resorted to clandestine abortions which include herbal medicines and violent "massage." Due to the high mortality and morbidity rates from such measures, multiple efforts by medical professionals and lawyers have tried to change the abortion laws. The need for so many clandestine abortions stems from women being married too early in life, being pregnant too late in life, and being pregnant too often. Women who seek abortions face a social taboo which, combined with the indifference of physicians, makes anything but a clandestine abortion impossible. Midwives are relatively sympathetic, but ill trained to handle abortions. In order to stop this catastrophe, new laws must be enacted to support health facilities who supply abortions for these women. Services offered should be in accordance with available equipment and medical personnel. Gestational age needs to be considered in order to provide safe termination and management. A referral systems needed to send patients to efficiently equipped facilities for their needs. Funds would have to be provided by the government and the community for facilities so that all members of society can use them.
The need for a reproductive health framework. Abstract.
"Reproductive health" is an all inclusive idea that goes beyond fertility regulation and maternal and child health to include all aspects of sexuality and reproductive health. Reproductive health policy and programs recognize that men, adolescents, and the unmarried need to be included. Information and services need to be available to women at all stages of their development so that their health is improved and maintained. Unfortunately this availability is restricted by discrimination against women that stem from cultural sex roles which proclaim male superiority. Practices to control female sexuality deny their reproductive rights, freedoms, and choices. Sexual discrimination along with violence inherent in poverty stricken areas can lead to female stunted growth, chronic anemia, and infections. The consequences are excessively high maternal mortality rates (i.e. 1/4 of all deaths of women are caused by maternal mortality). Many women who survive childbirth or abortion suffer serious injury or infection which lead to longterm health problems or infertility. Factors that increase maternal mortality and morbidity are early or late childbearing, many births and births spaced too closely together. Unwanted pregnancies that lead to clandestine abortions account for 25-50% of all maternal mortalities. 1 in 4 pregnancies worldwide ends in abortion, and 1 in 3 woman in Latin America have had an abortion. To improve reproductive health, particularly for women, the following steps are recommended: an integrated approach to reproductive health care that makes it a priority within primary health care, changes in laws and attitudes to improve the health status of women who are subject to adolescent marriages and harmful traditional practices, involving women in the community and in the planning and implementation of policies, better health services, nutritional services, and educational services for children (especially girls) and pregnant women on topics of sexually transmittable diseases and infections, and finally better research and documentation in all of these areas.
Control of pain for women undergoing termination of pregnancy. Abstract.
The choice of method for pain relief can maximize the safety of an abortion. Since general anesthesia increases the risk of death, it should be avoided. Reduction of anxiety which includes counsellors who greet and explore abortion related issues with the patient should be used. Patients should be taught relaxation techniques to be used during the abortion. All of this combined with reducing stressful stimuli will reduce the pain of the procedure. Prolonged suctioning and curetting should be avoided. Paracervical blocks are more effective at higher doses, and if a 5 minute waiting period is provided after administration. Epinephrine should not be used with the block. Narcotic analgesics (e.g. meperidine and fentanyl) given as small intravenous doses with the proper equipment in the presence of a trained staff will reduce pain. Augmented tranquilizers like diazepam should be avoided due to respiratory risks. If barbituate anesthesia is used, hospital equipment and procedure need to be used. Ketamine will be safer to use, but it needs to be administered in low doses with premedication of atropine and diazepam to stop hallucinations. Nitrous Oxide can be used to produce analgesia but it requires its own equipment to supply this gas as well as oxygen. Highest priority to reduce pain should be given to measures that reduce stress by providing psychological support of the patient. Next is to choose an abortion technique that is least painful which can entail the use of larger bore vacuum cannula for procedures at 8 weeks and beyond. For standard vacuum curettage, the next priority is for the physician to gain facility with proper application of the paracervical block, and then to wait several minutes before beginning the procedure.
Abortion laws and policies: challenges and opportunities. Abstract.
Recent reflection on legal attitudes towards abortion has created a shift from criminality to being in favor of women's health and family well-being. In the past 2 decades, at least 65 jurisdictions have liberalized abortion laws and 4 countries limited grounds for the procedure. The demographics of legislative abortion reforms show: Europe with 24 reforms, Africa with 10 reforms, Asia and Oceania with 13 reforms, Middle East and North Africa with 8 reforms, and the Western hemisphere with reforms in 10 countries. All major legal systems, such as Islamic Law, Common Law, and Civil Law have all had reforms. Recent decriminalization of abortion has occurred in Canada, China, Cuba, Togo, and Vietnam. Regulations governing delivery of services are often restrictive so as to limit access to the means of safe legal abortions unless certain criteria are met. These requirements include: abortions only performed by unnecessarily highly qualified medical personnel, abortions only occurring in institutions meeting higher standards than similar health care requires, abortions, needing approval by 2nd medical opinions or committees who monitor observance of the law, and abortions needing parental or spousal authorization. Instead of regulations emphasizing abortion safety making early trimester abortions more available and backing up this care by contraceptive counselling, the inhibitory regulations force women to get unqualified abortions which threaten their lives. Many countries will continue to have restrictive abortion laws due to religious or moralistic values. Epidemiological studies showing the high maternal mortality and morbidity rates in developing countries present maternal mortality rates 200 times higher than developed countries; 25-50% of these deaths are attributed to clandestine abortions. The differential liberalization of abortion laws is a large factor in the difference in maternal mortality rates. Abortion laws will be changed in the future by new developments like the antiprogesterone drugs, the AIDS epidemic, and antidiscrimination laws in favor of women. The legalization providing reproductive autonomy for women cannot be done effectively in isolation but rather in collaboration with all of those concerned with women's reproductive choice.
Criteria for the commercialization of new contraceptives include the fulfillment of a need not yet met; the availability of information on the product to consumers; the gain of knowledge necessary to use the product correctly; and the availability of the product to all who wish to use it. Introducing new methods into developed countries requires extensive and on-going communications with investigators, providers, and patients. This is accomplished most effectively through investigator publications. The private sector, state public aid formularies, the public sector, and the US government sector all vie for available contraceptive products, subject to their individual requirements. Distributors market the product information and materials and makes recommendations for improvement. A specific example of a new product release, ORTHO-NOVUM 7/7/7, is cited to illustrate marketing and distributing methods. (author's modified)
Methods of fertility regulation likely to be available within 10-15 years.
The National Academy of Sciences' Committee on Population prepared an inventory of fertility regulation methods likely to be available within the next 10-15 years for the Conference on Demographic and Programmatic Consequences of Contraceptive Innovations. This inventory lists types of methods including implants or injectables, vaginal steroids, IUDS, Menses Inducing methods, male methods, and Barrier Methods. The chart gives the basic drug used in the method, the mode of administration, probable effectiveness, side effects and safety, factors affecting acceptability, and delivery requirements.
The International Conference on Better Health for Women and Children through Family Planning was held from October 5-9, 1987, in Nairobi, Kenya. This monograph contains the 3 key documents prepared for the conference. "Family Planning: An Essential Ingredient of Family Health," prepared by Maggie Black, was an advocacy document on the Conference theme. It summarizes recent scientific evidence in health and family planning. "Abstracts: The Key Findings of 13 Technical Background Papers" summarized these papers prepared for the Conference. "The Policy and Programme Implications of Promoting Family Planning for Better Health," by Stephen Isaacs and Nuray Fincancioglu, examined the implications for policy and programmes of the information in the other 2 Conference documents. This monograph is also available in Spanish and French.
Theory into practice: programmes for specific groups.
Preventing the spread of AIDS challenges us with positively influencing the behavior of individuals and groups. Prejudices must be set aside to allow true communication, and to utilize all the available resources. Evidence is already arriving to indicate that positive behavioral changes are being effected worldwide, offering encouragement that our work as communicators will make a difference. National efforts must shelter numerous private and public efforts aimed at specific groups. The 1st element is to learn about the disease and the behavior of our people. We must learn how much the target group already knows about AIDS, what their behaviors and attitudes are, and how amenable these are to change. Monitoring and evaluation are essential elements of an effective strategy, in order to provide directions for growth and change. Monitoring and evaluation must begin in the planning stage, and must be continuous and ongoing. As we want people to want to change their behavior, we must recognize the differences between people, in situations, in cultures, in mores. Presentations at this summit have covered programs aimed at women in different social roles in New York City, a study of adolescents and their lifestyle to plan a program in Denmark, work with traditional Aboriginal people to create relevant symbols, language and meaning, and a program for drug addicts in Amsterdam. The essential point is not the specifics of a program, but the process of planning, evaluating the knowledge, behavior and attitudes of the target group, and involvement of the target group in planning the message. (author's modified
Counselling in HIV infection and disease.
HIV infection is life-long; however an infected person may remain asymptomatic for years, during which time he can still transmit the virus. Since it is spread by specific known behaviors, it can be prevented. Although the AIDS epidemic has provoked fear and misunderstanding, infected people can continue as functioning members of society. Counselling can help infected people and their families acquire correct information, and deal with fear and anxiety. Counselling must involve respect for the individual, without any discrimination based on HIV infection. Counselling is necessary for individuals considering being tested for HIV, for those who test positive, for asymptomatic infected people to deal with stress, for those sick with AIDS to deal with the medical and social implications of their illness, for people at risk who refuse testing, and for those who test negative, in order to educate them to prevent infection. In addition, health workers, family and friends who have regular professional or social contact with HIV infected people can benefit from counselling and support. Counsellors must be able to impart information accurately and objectively, in a way that engenders trust. He must be sympathetic and understanding so others feel free to express their feelings. Education and counselling must be targetted at groups at high risk. Risk reduction must emphasize that the main route of HIV transmission is sexual contact, that intravenous drug abuse is a high risk, that any skin piercing equipment may transmit the virus, and that HIV can be transmitted by pregnant women to their unborn children. Counselling services should be readily available as part of all strategies for controlling AIDS.
Homophobia, AIDS, and the health care professional.
Homophobia, the fear and loathing of homosexuality or homosexual behavior, has marked both institutional and personal responses to the AIDS epidemic. Studies conducted during the 1970s and 1980s in the US have consistently shown significant amounts of negativity among health care professionals towards homosexuality, ranging from indifference to outright hostility. That AIDS was 1st linked to homosexuals, and later to other minority groups, contributed to the slow response to the epidemic by governments, scientists, health care workers, and others. Ricky Sherover-Marcuse has developed a model called "unlearning" which can be used to temper personal biases, including racism, sexism, anti-Semitism, and homophobia. She believes that no one is born with these attitudes, and that we become responsible for them only when we become aware of them and persist in the behavior. Low self-esteem is often seen in homosexuals who have internalized society's attitudes. In addition they may feel guilt, or blame themselves, for contracting AIDS. Families and friends of HIV infected individuals may also suffer as a result of society's tendency to link AIDS with morality and to blame the victim for contracting the disease. Health practitioners can be aware of both internalized homophobia, and the blame the victim stance, and by confronting these attitudes help the patient clarify information and better understand their own feelings. In addition, by being aware of their own attitudes, the practitioners can make sure the quality and compassion of their services is not affected. If an AIDS' patient is being treated by a health care professional unwilling or unable to change homophobic attitudes, a referral to a new practitioner must be made. Otherwise there is the risk of mistreatment of the client and inappropriate behavior on the part of the provider. Although the AIDS epidemic has at times diluted stereotypes and encouraged understanding of homosexuals, homophobia has contributed to the slow response to the epidemic and the spread of HIV infection. Homophobia, as a learned behavior, can be unlearned, thus freeing patients and practitioners from its impact.
Homophobia in AIDs education: counterproductive to prevention.
Many materials designed to help prevent the spread of AIDS have also contained homophobic or anti-sexual attitudes. Homophobia, the irrational fear or hatred of gay people, their lifestyles, or their institutions, appears in several guises. The most common message is that AIDS is a gay disease. This notion continues to be put forth despite evidence that AIDS strikes many different groups. Another homophobic approach is messages which simply warn "do not have sex with gay or bisexual men". This assumes that all gay or bisexual men are at risk for HIV infection, while heterosexuals are not. Another form of homophobia seen in prevention messages is the exclusion of homosexuality altogether. This can suggest that homosexuals are completely unacceptable and should not be mentioned. In materials targeted to heterosexual populations, not mentioning homosexuals can also infer that the gay population is isolated sexually and that bisexual contact does not occur. It can also suggest that gays are not important, that AIDS is only serious when heterosexuals are at risk. Scapegoating of gay men (and other groups such as prostitutes, Haitians, and Africans) has also been seen in AIDS prevention, i.e. the attitude that if it were not for them and their sexual practices, AIDS would not be a problem. Anti-sexual messages are those which embody attitudes regarding sex as dirty or offensive. A common anti-sexual tactic is to concentrate on reducing the number of sex partners one has, rather than talking about safer sex practices. However, many safe contacts are better than 1 high risk contact. Abstinence messages, in turn, have never been effective in sex education, and they are unlikely to be effective now. Instead, by concentrating on abstinence, these materials fail to give people the information they need to protect themselves when they do have sex. Scare tactics, such as the association of sex and death, is a popular anti-sexual tactic used to scare people into AIDS prevention. However, there is no evidence that scare tactics lead to sustained behavior change. Experience in many countries in the last 5 years has shown that the most effective campaigns are those that are frank and explicit about sex and other risk factors. It is important to avoid confusing prevention messages with political goals, or to try to avoid talking about sex.
Do alternate modes for transmission of human immunodeficiency virus exist?
Transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is known to occur perinatally, through sexual contact, and after exposure to infected blood or blood products. The possibility that breast milk may transmit HIV continues to be evaluated. There is no epidemiologic evidence that contact with saliva, tears, or urine have resulted in HIV infection. However, because HIV has (in some cases rarely) been isolated from these body fluids, guidelines have been developed to reduce more extensive exposures to such secretions. Laboratory and epidemiologic data strongly indicate that HIV is not transmitted through immune globulin preparations, the hepatitis B vaccine, or contact with insects. Increasing evidence from many studies also indicates that HIV is not transmitted through casual contact. All individuals need to be aware of how HIV is and is not transmitted, to reduce high-risk behaviors and to avoid unnecessary fears and actions. (author's)
The syllabus and schedule are presented for the June 3 to 28, 1985 workshop sponsored by the Center for Population and Family Health (CPFH) at Columbia University. Included are exercises, readings, a final report on the 8 essential elements of primary health care (PHC), population reports, and a guide for teachers of PHC. A review of PHC is presented along with a discussion on program design, management, and evaluation. Needs and resource assessment are given in the context of quantitative and qualitative methods and focus group exercises. Work groups were formed to address issues through problem determination, defining objectives, strategizing, and evaluating criteria. A discussion on community-based maternity care includes a review of maternity care in industrialized versus nonindustrialized nations, manpower, special considerations of rural maternity care, home versus health center delivery including infant and maternal complications, and breastfeeding versus bottle feeding. Also highlighted are the various methods of community-based family planning, nutritional problems, and strategies for intervention. Legislation and policies are covered in terms of basic human rights and maternal and child health. The program closed with an emphasis on training programs, the use of information systems in evaluation and operations research, and program and implementation planning.
Major activities of population programmes.
This monograph outlines the major activities of population programs: 1) implementing activities in population programs, 2) planning an IEC project in the national population program, 3) establishing and realizing goals and targets, 4) management research and policy formulation, and 5) evaluating and measuring program results. Implementing activities in population programs can include 1) planning, 2) training, 3) service delivery and IEC, 4) logistics, and 5) monitoring, research, and evaluation. Planning an IEC project in the national population program includes 1) formulating goals and objectives, 2) describing and interpreting the main themes or concepts, 3) production design, and 4) the pre-production, production, and post-production phases. Goals and targets must be clearly stated and formulated in measurable terms whenever called for. The management of a national population program can be perceived as part of a process on the use of technology to achieve planned social and economic change. Evaluation is a research process which is designed to assess the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of a project of program in terms of its objectives.
The past and future of population growth, economic development of China's eight regions.
The total population of China in 1933 was 463 million, with an average density of 48 persons per square kilometer. From 1933 to 1953, China's population growth was much slower than from 1953 to 1982 because of the Anti-Japanese War and the National Liberation War. Only from 1970 on was family planning a serious activity. Since liberation, population growth in China has varied in different provinces, cities, and regions. The 2 municipalities of Beijing and Tianjin had great population increases. The pattern of China's population distribution clearly demonstrates a great difference between the southeast and the northwest. The population of the southeast makes up 94.4% of the total. The distribution of population and economy is dense in the east and sparse in the west, that of energy and industrial resources dense in the west and sparse in the east, that of water resources dense in the southeast and sparse in the northwest. The country can be divided into 8 major population regions: 1) the Lower Huanghe region, 2) the Liao-Ji Hei region, 3) the Middle-Lower Changjiang region, 4) the Southeast Coast region, 5) the Jin-Shaan-Gan-Ning region, 6) the Sichuan-Guizhou-Yunnan region, 7) the Inner Mongolia-Xinjiang region, and 8) and the Qinghai-Xizang region. The population and development of each region has its own characteristics, so programs should be approached separately. The 1982 census shows that China's population has been over 1 billion. In 1981 the urban total fertility rate was 1.39, while the rural rate was 2.91. Owing to the large proportion of adolescents, it is likely that China's population will grow larger by the beginning of the next century. By 2030, the total population will probably amount to 1.3 to 1.4 billion.
3 stochastic models for the i-th order birth interval are developed corresponding to each of the following ways for considering birth interval data: 1) all closed birth intervals (retrospective and prospective studies), 2) last closed birth interval, 3) prospective next (straddling) birth interval, 4) prospective interior birth intervals, and 5) open birth intervals. The method produces estimates of fertility hazards that are recovered (purged) from truncation bias for all closed, last closed, and open birth intervals. These hazard estimates are further utilized in driving 3 important length-unbiased cohort fertility quantities, viz., mean length of interlive birth interval, parity progression ratio, and birth interval survival function. The models were applied to data from the Egyptian Fertility Survey (1980) for a marriage cohort with 5-9 years of intact marital life. While the recovered birth order-specific hazard estimates are generally of the same magnitude irrespective of the ascertainment method of considering birth interval data, they are largely below the corresponding estimates derived from straddling birth intervals. Comparison between model-based and life-table-estimated survival probabilities of the 2nd birth interval indicates that the former is more likely to be better adjusted for truncation bias. (author's modified)
The Interregional Seminar to Promote the Implementation of the International Plan of Action on Aging was held from 9-20 September, 1985, at the October Palace of Culture at Kiev, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. The objective of the seminar was to promote the implementation of the International Plan of Action on Aging at the interregional, regional, and national levels with a view to formulating strategies for improving its implementation. The International Plan of Action on Aging focuses on both developmental and humanitarian aspects of the aging of populations. It contains recommendations covering health and nutrition, protection of elderly consumers, housing and the environment, family, social welfare, income security and employment, and education. The Plan of Action, however, can only provide broad guidelines and general principles as to the way in which the international community, governments, non-governmental organizations, and society at large can meet the challenge of the progressive aging of the world's population. More specific approaches and policies must be conceived of and formulated in terms of the traditions, cultural values, and socioeconomic conditions of individual countries. Representatives of 28 countries, UN organizations, and members of the UN International Network for Information exchange on aging took part in the seminar. Discussions focused on national experience in implementing the recommendations of the International Plan of Action on Aging.
Family status and homeownership.
This paper reports on research which examines changes in residence and family characteristics over the course of the family life cycle. Data is from the 1976 US Annual Housing Survey's sample of black and white household heads aged 25-29. The regression analysis showed the following effects of family life cycle status on homeownership in both the all household heads sample as well as the recent movers sample: 1) The log-odds of homeownership increased with age. 2) Married household heads have higher log-odds than single (unmarried) household heads. 3) Presence of children and presence of others do not have significant additive effects but do have significant interactive effects. 4) Young household heads with children have higher log-odds than young household heads without children, while among older household heads presence of children has no effect. 5) For all household heads only, younger single males and younger single females have about the same log-odds, both lower than married, while older single males have lower log-odds than older single females who in turn have lower log-odds than married individuals. 6) Households with no children present have higher log-odds of homeownership when others are present than when others are not present; households with children present have higher log-odds when others are not present than when others are present. 7) Single females have higher log-odds when others are present than when others are not present; married heads have higher log-odds when others are not present than when others are present. Among movers, single males have higher log-odds when others are not present than when others are present while among all household heads this relationship is reversed. Using the Kain and Quigley (1975) and Bianchi et. al. (1982) family life cycle typologies as starting points, this analysis has also shown the utility of an approach for analyzing family life cycle effects which starts with the unidimensional variables which underlie the family life cycle typology and then looks for significant interaction effects. In both instances, the appropriate model incorporated some interaction effects but was simpler than a 3-way interaction model.
Population policy diskette documentation, 1987.
This documentation describes a machine readable database entitled GLOBAL REVIEW AND INVENTORY OF POPULATION POLICIES: 1987, which is provided on an accompanying diskette. The diskette described contains data on the population policies and policy perceptions of 170 countries, assessed as of February 27, 1987. Data are drawn from information in the Population Policy Data Bank of the Population Division of the Department of International Economic and Social Affairs of the UN Secretariat. 1 of the principal aims of disseminating the database on diskette is to encourage knowledgeable individuals to inform the Population Division of any instance where its coding of population policy in a particular country appears to be in conflict with the current situation. Policy topics covered in the files include population growth, mortality, fertility, internal migration and spatial distribution, immigration, emigration, and the integration of population variables into the development planning process. There is also information about a number of demographic indicators, which include current and projected population size, current fertility and mortality levels, population growth rates, and proportions foreign born. Data files are provided in several different formats with several different types of data dictionary. Data files on the diskette include 1) a standard ASCII data file in rectangular fixed format, whose variables and layout are described in the data dictionary reproduced in section 2; 2) a LOTUS 1-2-3 spreadsheet data file, whose layout is described in section 3; and 3) an SPSS-PC+ system file. The data dictionary files on the diskette include 1) a standard data dictionary which documents the ASCII file, 2) an SPSS-PC+ dictionary, 3) an SPSS version 9 dictionary, 4) a full dictionary that p