Intercensal Population Survey Phase II (SUPAS II) [MRDF].
This file contains 340,176 records (with a record length of 160 characters) and has an accompanying codebook. The file contains data for 281,159 individuals in Indonesia who were interviewed in a 1976 national survey of households. "For all (adult) household members, the following details are recorded: age, sex, religion, education, orphanhood, birthplace, residence five years ago and reason for migration, details of economic activity in last week, usual occupation, monthly income and work status in last year. Ever-married women were asked: number of marriages, date (age) of first marriage, children ever born and dead, date and survival of last birth. Additional questions were asked for currently married women aged 50 years or less concerning desire for more children, method-specific knowledge, ever-use and current use of contraception." (EXCERPT)
[Projection of the available active population, 1985-2010]
This is one of three publications presenting projections of the population of France using data from the 1982 census. The present publication presents projections of the economically active and school-age population to the year 2010. The results forecast a slowing in the rate of growth of the labor force over the next 15 years and a subsequent decline in numbers. (ANNOTATION)
These are the results of a study on infant and child mortality in Bakau, the Gambia. The study, carried out in 1982, concerned 479 children, 17 of whom died. Factors associated with mortality include self-employment of mother, presence of animals in the compound where the child lived, maternal education, and health knowledge. (ANNOTATION)
In order to identify subgroups of women at elevated risk of induced abortion, personal characteristics and habits, selected medical histories, and contraceptive practices of 873 women undergoing legal abortion in various areas of Northern Italy were compared with those of 504 control subjects identified in family planning clinics of the same hospitals or area health authorities. When age was allowed for, the risk of induced abortion was not strongly influenced by marital status, education, or other indicators of social class. However, women who were employed, independently from the type of occupation, showed markedly lower abortion risks than housewives. Among various indicators of sexual habits investigated, the strongest determinant of legal abortion was the frequency of sexual intercourse over the previous 6 months, women with less frequent intercourse showing a markedly elevated risk estimate (RR=2.82). Induced abortion was less frequent among ex-smokers and more frequent in heavy smokers, but was not appreciably influenced by several other indicators of life style habits and history of gynecological or psychiatric complaints. The risk of abortion was not influenced by the number of live births, but was lower for women with later age at 1st birth. Less than 5% of case and control subjects reported more than 2 previous induced abortions, thus indicating that abortion is more of an accidental event rather than a widespread contraceptive practice. However, over 3/4 of abortions occurred in women reporting no contraception at all or coitus interruptus, thus underlining the scope for family planning education in this population. (author's)
A survey of family planning attitudes among the Islamic leadership in South Thailand.
This survey was conducted in 2 provinces of South Thailand to investigate the attitudes of rural Islamic leaders toward family planning. The sample included 150 Islamic teachers (Tok Gurus) and prayer leaders (Tok Imans) who exert significant influence in community life. Specific questions that the survey sought to answer were: Under what circumstances would a Tok Guru or Tok Iman endorse individual use of contraception? What methods of birth control are most acceptable in terms of religious beliefs? And, How would religious leaders react to a widespread family planning communication program? Survey results were indicative of strong pronatalist attitudes among the Islamic leadership. Only 36% of religious leaders in Narathiwat and 54% of those in Krabi were supportive of the use of birth control in a hypothetical family of 4 children where the couple desires no more children. The general sentiment was that, if a couple is physically and financially capable, it is their duty to produce children. Sexual sterilization was generally unacceptable, as was the IUD because of concern that it may cause infertility. The condom tends to be associated with prostitution and extramarital affairs. Least offensive in terms of religious beliefs were oral contraceptives, injection, and the rhythm method. Although a significant number of respondents saw population growth as a positive trend ensuring the security of the Moslem population, a majority acknowledged the need for the government to provide information about modern birth control methods. On the other hand, this response was often qualified by adding that such information should be available only to those who have legitimate health or economic reasons for practicing family planning. A major conclusion of this survey is that family planning should be promoted at a rate that is acceptable to local religious leaders; excessive motivation could have a rebound effect.
Maternal health in subsaharan Africa [editorial]
In Africa south of the Sahara the crisis of development is deepening, as evidenced by the depressing figures for maternal health. At present, maternal deaths/1000 births are 6.4 in Africa, 4.2 in Asia, and 2.7 in Latin America, compared with 0.3 in all developed countries. Another important indication of maternal health is the scale of morbidity from pregnancy-associated complications, especially from illegally induced abortions. Abortion is the main cause of death in some urban areas in Africa. Attempts to reduce the scale of death and destruction will succeed only if they are based on reliable information collected through surveys. Harrison and his colleagues reported the results of 1 such survey conducted in Zaria, Northern Nigeria. The sheer size of the data set and the analytical techniques applied sets this work apart from other surveys emanating from Africa. Among the attractions of the Zaria report are its emphasis on early teenage pregnancy and its clarification of the major prerequisites for safe childbearing. The study also provides information that disproves the idea that paramedical staff, including midwives, should be trained to do caesarean sections in the belief that caesarean sections have a crucial part to play in reduction of mortality and morbidity. Finally, the study provides evidence of decreased maternal mortality among women with 2ndary school education. There is much strength in Harrison's argument that the answer to the health problems of women in subsaharan Africa lies in universal formal education, with elimination of mass illiteracy. That way, outmoded customs will be supplanted by knowledge essential for better living standards and whole populations will become better equipped for general development, including health care.
Social customs and beliefs regarding breast feeding.
This study, undertaken to investigate the social customs and beliefs surrounding breast feeding in Western Rajasthan, India, was conducted at the Umaid Hospital for Women and Children in Jodhpur. 300 women attending the pediatric outpatient and impatient departments and underfive clinics at the hospital constituted the study subjects. The women ranged in age from 15-42 years. They were interviewed to collect information on social and family variables and on breast feeding. Of the 300 women, 65.3% were residents of urban areas. 92.7% of the respondents believed in inaugural feeding with 32.3% preferring honey, followed by, among others, animal milk (17.6%), and janam ghutti (11.7%). Honey and janam ghutti were preferred by rural respondents; jaggery (13.8%), water (9.7%), and tea (7.7%) were preferred by urban women. Ceremonial ritual prior to beginning breast feeding was observed by 47.9% of the urban women (despite better education in urban areas) and 57.7% of the rural women. Colostrum feeding was denied by 32.6% women, but it was favored by 65.8% urban and 46.1% rural women. Nearly 33% urban and 40.9% rural mothers favored the restriction of breast feeding during maternal illness. During illness of the child, 48.4% urban and 51.9% rural women favored breast feeding restriction. The breast-feeding practices reflect a strong interlocking influence with social customs and beliefs as do the preference of women for inaugural feeds. The use of these feeds depends upon local customs and beliefs and the socioeducational level of the population. This is strongly supported by the observation that 79.7% of the women gave inaugural feed because of advice of an elderly family member or family tradition.
Socioeconomic disparities in risk factors for cardiovascular disease.
To identify target groups for preventive health promotion efforts, this study analyzed the prevalence of risk factors associated with cardiovascular disease by socioeconomic status in Canadian adults. The prevalence rates of cardiovascular disease risk factors were drawn from the 1978-79 Canada Health Survey, the 1981 Canada Fitness Survey, and labor force smoking surveys of 1975 and 1983. The risk factors considered were cigarette smoking, overweight, obesity, elevated diastolic blood pressure, physical inactivity, excessive alcohol consumption, elevated serum cholesterol, diabetes mellitus, and conjoint use of oral contraceptives (OCs) and cigarettes. Educational level was used as a measure of socioeconomic status. The results indicate that both males and females with a lower level of education are more likely to have a given risk factor than those with a higher educational level. Among men 20-69 years, the largest relative differences in risk factor prevalence between the educational groups were found for smoking, obesity, inactivity, and alcohol consumption; among women, these factors were smoking, obesity, overweight, elevated diastolic blood pressure, and inactivity. Among women 15-34 years, 39% of cigarette smokers with an elementary school education used OCs compared with 30% of smokers with a secondary school education and 16% of smokers with a university education. Among OC users 15-34 years, 75% of those with an elementary school education smoked compared with 43% of OC users with a secondary school education and 20% of those with a university education. In 1983, there was a 13% difference in smoking rates between women in the lowest and the highest educational groups. Women in the lowest educational category have been least likely to participate in the trend toward lower smoking rates.
Using Fishbein's and Kar's models as a starting point, this research develops a multidimensional model and tests the effects of selected psychosocial factors on contraceptive behavior, cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Cross-sectionally, selected psychosocial determinants affect contraceptive behavior in the following descending order: conjugal communication, lack of desire for more children, social support, and respondent's attitude toward family planning. Longitudinally, respondent's attitude/intention has the most effect on contraceptive behavior. The second and final significant determinant is whether or not a woman wants more children. This dissertation supports the hypothesis that women practice contraception not only as a result of their social setting, but also as a result of inter- and intrapersonal factors. Such results imply that an intervention strategy which focuses only on changing family planning attitude would not be as effective as one that would change attitude/intent, conjugal communication, and other factors at the same time. Successful Filipino programs could intervene by doing the following at the same time: focus on intent to perform a specific contraceptive behavior, promote more discussion between spouses about family planning and contraception, encourage more open discussion about the advantages of fewer children and longer birth intervals, and target some family planning activities for those who are older who may not be at risk for pregnancy but who may be influential among younger relatives. (author's modified)
A case study conducted in the State of Tamil Nadu, India, assessed the impact of Indian government family planning instructional films on nonliterate rural Indians. Walter J. Ong's theory on orality and literacy was applied with particular focus on a culture experiencing "secondary orality" in which nonliterate people interact with electronic technologies that have emerged from a literature tradition. The study analyzed how nonliterate Indians derived meaning from specific instructional films that were produced by literate people. 2 cartoon and 2 real-life family planning films were screened for 11 nonliterate rural Indians. Methodological analysis involved: the syntactic level which described the films in terms of setting, plot, use of music, use of color, character identification, use of flashforwards and flashbacks, narrative structure, and use of narration; the semantic level which analyzed the meaning derived by the nonliterates of the syntactic elements; and the pragmatic level which analyzed the films and the responses of the audience to the myths propagated in the films, to the use of stereotypes, and the reaction to the medium itself within the Indian cultural context. Findings on the syntactic level indicate that the films structure the plots in a logical, sequential, comparison format. Narrations of the plots by the audience did not correspond strictly to what unfolded on the screen. Flashbacks and flashforwards generally were not included in the narrations and were difficult to comprehend. On the semantic level, the audience identified with the characters and the message in the 2 real-life films, but the 2 cartoon films were difficult to understand and often viewed only as entertaining. On the pragmatic level, the audience accepted the dominant myths of Work, Happiness, and Progress but would not adopt family planning based on what they saw. They all preferred face-to-face instruction. Specific recommendations for future research include: to conduct a long term study of the impact of family planning films on nonliterate audiences in order to assess whether repeated exposure will lead to attitudinal changes, behavioral changes, and cognitive changes; to exposure nonliterate audiences to cartoon films over a period of time and examine their effectiveness conveying messages; and to use the findings of this study and compare them with the findings of a study in which young children (who are not literate) are asked to interpret instructional films.
Macro analysis of fertility trends among Korean provinces: 1966-1980.
Data were developed for each of the 11 Korean provinces for the years 1966, 1970, 1975, and 1980 to describe fertility differentials and fertility decline, to explore the determinants of fertility decline, and to test a theoretical model based on modernization and demographic transition theory as explanations for fertility differentials across the Korean provinces. The methods used include indirect fertility estimation, descriptive statistics, regression analysis, and time series pooling and cross-sectional analyses. The general hypotheses were: among the Korean provinces, a negative relationship exists between structural development, health and family planning programs, and fertility; and there will be some change in the magnitude of the fertility determinants over time, with the development variables in particular becoming less strong. The results show that the substantial differentials in fertility among the Korean provinces in 1966 had converged by 1980; the hypothesis expecting a negative relationship between socioeconomic development and fertility was strongly supported, but the hypothesis expecting a negative relationship between family planning programs and fertility was not supported strongly; in the time series pooling and cross-sectional analyses, the static model showed that family planning programs, communication, and transportation had more impact on fertility than socioeconomic development; and in the dynamic model, family planning programs, communication, and transportation had significant impact on the fertility change, and socioeconomic development had an insignificant impact. It is concluded on the basis of the study findings that the social setting and program effort work together effectively in terms of fertility decline, and it is notable that the influence of communication and transportation is very important. Consequently, it is argued that the motivational school by itself, i.e., that modernization is the best contraception, is insufficient to explain Korea's fertility decline.
Sociodemographic and marital heterogamy influences on the decision for voluntary sterilization.
This research examines the relationship between religious and age heterogamy on the one hand, and the choice of voluntary contraceptive sterilization and the decision for a male or female procedure on the other. 2 perspectives are set forth that provide bases for expecting heterogamy effects. One is a "selectivity" perspective, which predicts that heterogamous couples would be more likely than others to obtain a sterilization procedure and to choose a male procedure. The other is a "strain" perspective, which under certain conditions predicts that heterogamous couples would be less likely than homogamous couples to elect sterilization and to elect male sterilization. In the case of selecting sterilization over other contraceptive methods, the results support the former perspective, with couples of disparate ages and mixed-faith marriages exhibiting a greater tendency to elect sterilization than other couples. No relationship emerges, however, between the measures of heterogamy and the tendency to choose male over female sterilization. The results also reveal regional differences in sterilization patterns. The implications of the findings for the theoretical perspectives are discussed. (author's)
Patterns of premarital cohabitation among never married women in the U.S.
This paper examines the patterns of heterosexual cohabitation among 20-29 year old never-married women in the US, using data from a national sample survey conducted in 1983. First, estimates of incidence and prevalence of cohabitation are presented; then, cohabitors and noncohabitors are compared on the basis of 4 groups of variables. Finally, logistic regression models are utilized to examine the factors that are associated with cohabitation. The results indicate that heterosexual cohabitation among never-married women is a common occurrence. Prevalence of cohabitation varies with a number of social, psychological, and demographic variables, and several factors differentiate the cohabitors from the noncohabitors. But, cohabitation, as now practiced among single women in their 20s, does not appear to be a permanent replacement for marriage. For most women, it seems to be a new dimension and a part of the courtship process, but not a long-range life style. (author's)
The cervical cap: effectiveness, safety, and acceptability as a barrier contraceptive.
The experiences of 217 volunteers fitted with the cervical cap were analyzed to asses the cap's effectiveness. The cervical cap's a contraceptive barrier device used widely in Europe and currently under consideration by the Food and Drug Administration for release in the US. In 24 months of use, 43 pregnancies were reported among 39 women (4 became pregnant twice with the cap). The Pearl Index was 22.7 pregnancies/100 woman-years of use. Neither the characteristics of participants nor the characteristics of cap use affected the pregnancy rate significantly. However, the pregnancy rate was higher in participants reporting an average frequency of intercourse of 20 or more times/month and in those who observed cap displacement sometime during intercourse. Medical problems associated with cap use were minimal. Increased vaginal odor was the side effect reported most frequently. The majority of participants deemed the cap a positive contraceptive; 83% stated they would recommend it to friends. (author's modified)
Risk of late first and second trimester miscarriage after induced abortion.
A cohort of 3110 women anticipating delivery were interviewed after their 1st prenatal visit at private obstetric practices and health maintenance organizations in Connecticut. In all, 19.57% reported a prior induced abortion. The research participants were followed to determine whether the pregnancy was miscarried or delivered. In all, 2.19% miscarried in the late 1st or 2nd trimester. The association of a prior induced abortion on risk for late miscarriage was analyzed by pregnancy history. Women who aborted their 1st pregnancy had no increased risk (RR=.56, 95% CI=.16, 1.92) of miscarriage compared with women pregnant for the 1st time, or compared with women experiencing their 2nd pregnancy after delivering the 1st (RR=.69, 95% CI=.18, 2.60). No evidence was found for an increased risk of multiple induced abortion on subsequent miscarriage. (author's)
Infant outcome, fetal growth, and pregnancy care: relationships in Indonesian University Obstetrics.
The risk of perinatal death is displayed for "56 growth combinations," then contracted into 16 gestational age/birth weight categories (GA/BW), with an additional control for antenatal visits (AV; CARE) for 36,000 singleton births monitored in Indonesia between 1978-80. For virtually all of the GA/BW combinations, the risk of perinatal death (PD) drops dramatically with pregnancy care (care effect on PD). Fetal growth curves are thus displayed by infant outcome, the BW difference being the deficit birth weight which may serve as a specific life-death growth standard. This allows for the study of fetal growth curves which have been controlled for factors other than infant outcome. By controlling for maternal education and pregnancy care, the fetal growth curve associated with high pregnancy and low education is more favorable than that for low pregnancy and high education. In Indonesia, pregnancy care is thus more important than formal education in the reduction of both perinatal mortality and low birth weight. (author's)
Some bio-social factors for drop out of children undergoing oral polio vaccination.
This study was designed to identify biosocial factors that contribute to India's high dropout rate for completion of the oral polio vaccine series. The study sample included the 2027 children registered in 1983-84 at an immunization clinic in Agra. At the time of the 1st dose, parents were educated about the importance of completing the series. 683 of the children were not returned for the 3rd dose, for a dropout rate of 33.7%. The majority of dropouts (42.6%) were clustered in the 3-6 month age group. There was a higher but nonsignificant dropout rate in females (35.4%) than in males (32.6%). The dropout rate was lowest among children of birth order 1 (23.2%) and highest in birth order 5 (72.1%). There was a statistically significant association between dropout rates and maternal occupational status; only 3.8% of children whose mothers were engaged in service occupations failed to complete the immunization series compared with 34.6% of those whose mothers were housewives. In addition, there was a significant association with paternal occupation. The maximum number of dropouts was noted among children whose fathers were laborers (51.2%) and the lowest rate was found among children of men in service occupations (23.6%). Finally, there was a significant inverse relationship between parental education and dropout rates. This relationship was most pronounced for maternal educational status. The dropout rate was only 5% in children whose mothers were educated at the high school level and above compared with 14% in children whose father's education was at this level.
Poverty and human development in the Third World.
This article discusses 4 areas that continue to compromise the well-being of children in the developing world: poor health, inadequate nutrition, high fertility, and little or no education. Although more effective family planning is a necessity, this measure will not succeed unless the links between high mortality, impoverished living conditions, illiteracy, poor health, and the practice of having large families are considered. The education of mothers appears to be one of the best ways to improve child health. A mother's level of education affects her access to information that will influence her decisions on medical care. Maternal education is further associated with delayed age at marriage and increased employment opportunities, both of which tend to promote lower fertility. Of concern is the effect of the worldwide economic recession on child welfare. International economic events influence family and community, household income, and government expenditures on social services. An important way to combat the effects of poverty on children is to provide children and their families with the means to influence and control their own destiny. All considerations of child welfare should use an ecologic perspective that draws understanding from medicine, education, economics, psychology, biology, and sociology and places the child's development in its context.
Number of siblings, family background, and the process of educational attainment.
The effects of number of siblings on educational attainment were analyzed in probability samples of 57,000 white men in the US. Also addressed was the relative importance of sibship size compared with father's education, father's socioeconomic status, farm background, and a broken family. The data revealed a marked linear association between sibsize and total years of education. The difference between the extremes of sibsize was more than double the racial difference and 3 times the age difference. Sibsize operates not simply by diluting parental economic resources for postsecondary education, but by impinging on education at the graded level. Males from large versus small families lose an average of 1 year of graded schooling, which implies large differences in proportions graduating from high school. Sibsize influences college attendance much less than it influences graded schooling; at higher levels of education, IQ, performance, and motivation are more decisive factors. Whereas father's education and sibsize are the most important determinants of total years of education and years of graded schooling, college schooling is more dependent on the father's socioeconomic status than other family background variables.
Effect of number and position of siblings on child and adult outcomes.
This paper develops a theoretical model of the effects of family size and birth order on educational attainment and earnings. The parental utility maximization model allows the development of closed-form expressions for the within-family ratios of schooling and earnings. A reduced form demand function for each child's schooling and earnings also can be obtained. Each of these functions depends on the exogenous variables of the price of education divided by the price of parental consumption, parental income, the child's endowment, and the parameters of the utility and the production function. Application of this model to empirical data from the Twin and Adult Offspring Sample confirmed both birth order and family size effects for schooling even when parental age, income, education, and father's religion were controlled. The effects were larger for daughters than sons. The difference in educational attainment between 1st and 5th-born was 0.7 years for males and 1.4 years for females. Family size further reduces parental contribution to college education and encourages working, loans, and scholarships. The earnings data do not display birth order effects once family background and sibship size are controlled.
Psychosocial aspects of repeat abortions in Singapore--a preliminary report.
The rate of repeat abortions in Singapore has risen from 10% of all abortions in 1975 to 42% in 1982. This study sought to identify psychosocial characteristics of 100 Chinese women 15-44 years of age who requested a repeat abortion; 100 antenatal patients and 100 1st-time abortees, matched with subjects for age and race, were used as controls. There were no significant differences between cases and controls in most of the variables analyzed. Educational and socioeconomic status, personality components (extroversion, neuroticism, psychoticism), and mood were similar in women from all 3 groups. However, repeat abortees had more prior pregnancies and more living children. Repeat abortees had an average of 4.27 prior pregnancies and 1.94 living children compared with 2.07 pregnancies and 0.88 living children among antenatal patients and 2.67 pregnancies and 1.52 living children among 1st-time abortees. Contraceptive methods reported most commonly among repeat abortees included a combination of methods (27%), condom (21%), and rhythm (15%); these were the 3 methods most frequently reported by 1st-time abortees as well. The Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale was administered to all abortion patients before abortion and 6 weeks after the procedure. The mean score before abortion was 39.04 among 1st-time abortees and 41.25 among repeat abortees--well below the mean of 60 found among clinically depressed patients. 6 weeks after the procedure, the depression score had declined to 34.46 among 1st-time abortees and to 35.14 among repeat abortees.
Contraceptive failure in the US.
This paper is a comprehensive critical review of the extensive literature on contraceptive failure. The substantive focus is on contraceptive efficacy in developed countries, primarily in the US. The discussion is divided into 5 main sections. In the 1st, the authors consider various concepts of contraceptive effectiveness and their measurement. In the 2nd part, they examine the problem of experimental design; the authors focus attention here on methodological pitfalls, particularly various forms of selection bias that snare many investigators and compromise their findings. The 3rd section provides a review, organized by method, of major published studies of contraceptive failure. In the 4th section, the authors use the results of the previous sections to construct a comparable set of failure and continuation rates; the emphasis here is on the efficacy information women (or couples) need to make an informed choice of method. They close with a set of summary findings and recommendations to guide future research. (author's)
Racial differences in contraceptive choice: complexity and implications [tables]
In this paper, the authors examine the sociodemographic variables that influence contraceptive choice, which may in part explain the consistently higher fertility for blacks than for whites in the US. It seems that there is no simple explanation, in that race interacted with a number of other variables in predicting contraceptive choice. Thus, contraceptive choice not only varies across race, but the effects of such variables as age, marital status, and education vary across racial groups. For instance, the findings regarding the race/marital status interaction are that, compared to whites, black married women avoid coital methods; compared to blacks, white women shift their contraceptive behavior more as they change marital status. The authors conclude that the complex nature of the racial differences in contraceptive choice have been and will continue to reflect overall changes in the role of marriage for blacks and whites, particularly if the changes have differing consequences for various subgroups of the population. (author's)
A review of the literature suggests that certain deviant behaviors, e.g. drug and alcohol use at a young age, predict an early onset of sexual activity in adolescents. A 2-step process was tested to identify the determinants of 1) the occurrence and 2) the outcomes of premarital pregnancy, whether abortion or premarital or postmarital birth. Risk factors were modeled through event history and logistic regression analysis. The analyses are based on a 1980-81 sample of 706 young women, with an average age of 24.3, most of whom had participated in a New York State high school survey in 1971-72. 23% of the women had had a premarital pregnancy. Generally, the same covariates predict the occurrence of premarital pregnancy and its outcome. Cohabitation increases the chance of a premarital pregnancy by 2.51 times, being Black also by 2.51, having had poor grades by 3.04, high peer activity in high school by 3.30, former use of illicit drugs other than marijuana by 1.84, and having dropped out of high school by 1.59. Premarital births, as opposed to postmarital births, stillbirths, miscarriages, or abortions, are overrepresented among Blacks, who are 16.4 times as likely to have a premarital birth as are nonblacks, and high school dropouts, who are 5.3 times as likely. Abortions among the users of illicit drugs other than marijuana are another strong effect: the odds of an abortion in a drug user are 6.1 times as large. The risk factors identify groups of adolescents for whom the timing and sequencing of family roles is especially disrupted.
This study assess the effects of socioeconomic factors, maternal attitudes, and health program outputs on preventive health behaviors and the impact of these behaviors on incidence of diarrhea among children in Thailand. WHO estimates that there are over 750 million episodes of acute diarrhea among children under 5 each year in developing countries, resulting in 5 million deaths. Focus group sessions with mothers revealed that incidences of diarrhea may be underreported by as much as 32% since mothers refer to diarrhea in infants under 1 year of age by a different term. Over 75% of mothers believed that a child less than 1 year with diarrhea ("sou") did not require treatment, while only 15% hold this belief for children 1-5 with diarrhea ("thongsia"). Although maternal knowledge on causes, severity, and treatment of diarrhea was generally high, 20% thought a child should fast during a diarrheal episode. Almost 2/3 indicated that they let a child lay for 2-3 days before giving treatment. Socioeconomic indicators (maternal education and latrine ownership) and indicators of exposure to government health programs showed a significant relationship with selected maternal preventive health behaviors. Incidence of diarrhea was significantly related to source of water upply and selected maternal preventive health behaviors. Of children identified by monitoring to have diarrhea, less than 30% were treated immediately with oral rehydration solution (ORS), and more than 35% never received treatment. Children who are never treated and children who are treated after a delay of several days risk severe dehydration. Educational efforts directed at teaching mothers to wash hands and heat food, as well as programs to improve quality of water supply should have a great impact on reducing incidence of diarrhea.
Report on the basic survey of population and development in Southeast Asian countries: India.
The findings of a 1985 survey concerning population and development problems in India are reported. The survey covered a sample of 280 households in two regions. In the first two chapters, an overview of population dynamics and health issues in India is presented, and various aspects of urbanization are discussed. Tables in the third chapter provide information on the survey sample, including age distribution, place of birth, income and occupational status, consumption of selected durable goods, educational status, delivery of health services, family planning practice, family characteristics and size, married women in the labor force, and migration. A sample of the questionnaire used is included.
Status enhancement during pregnancy and its influence on fertility behavior.
"A survey of 967 married women from Misamis Oriental, Philippines was conducted to examine pregnancy as a reproductive experience that may either be status-enhancing or status-degrading. In the study, pregnancy status was defined as a social position located within a set of relationships....Findings from multivariate analyses indicated that four variables were significantly related to pregnancy status. These were: (1) number of live births; (2) modern role orientation; (3) woman's educational attainment; and (4) age....Findings from Linear Structural Relations (LISREL) analyses revealed that while number of live births was the most important indicator of unwanted births, pregnancy status also contributed to unwanted births as a direct and mediating factor. It is suggested that a woman's perception of pregnancy as status-enhancing or degrading be considered as a supplementary factor in explaining fertility behavior." This work was prepared as a doctoral dissertation at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (EXCERPT)
[Demographic aspects of multiple births in Poland]
Trends in multiple births in Poland are analyzed. The focus is on the period since World War II, although some data for earlier periods are also included in the analysis. Consideration is given to the factors allegedly affecting twinning rates such as maternal age, rural or urban residence, educational status, and female sexual excitability (SUMMARY IN ENG) (ANNOTATION)
"In this paper, we describe and utilize methods to estimate the consequences for children's schooling and birthweight of the exogenous variability in the supply of births in one low income country, Malaysia. The method utilizes information on contraceptive techniques employed by couples to estimate directly the technology of reproduction and provides a means of disentangling the biological and demand factors that contribute to the variation in fertility across couples under a regime of imperfect fertility control. Our results suggest that imperfect fertility control significantly influences both the average schooling attainment and birthweight of children in Malaysia, with couples having above-average propensities to conceive reporting higher levels of actual fertility, significantly lower expectations of and actual schooling attainment for their children, and lower birthweight children, on average, due to smaller intervals between births." (EXCERPT)
Demographic development in a developing economy: a case study of Uttar Pradesh.
"Patterns of and trends in demographic development in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh have been analysed in this paper. Indices of urbanisation, literacy and occupational structure were used for this purpose. Their aggregate index represented the level of demographic development." The data are for 242 subdivisions of Uttar Pradesh for the census years 1971 and 1981. Particular attention is given to regional differentials in demographic indicators. The relationships among economic development and the measurements of literacy, urbanization, and occupational status are explored (EXCERPT)
Migration, human resource transfers, and development contexts: a logit analysis of Venezuelan data.
"This paper is concerned with the reciprocal relationship between migration and development in Third World settings. Using individual-level data for Venezuela, migration behavior is related to a person's age, educational attainment, gender, and characteristics of his/her place(s) of residence as an out-migrant, in-migrant, or stayer. Place characteristics are in terms of four groups based on employment patterns: the core, regional centers, resource frontiers, and traditional rural areas....The primary data source for this research is 116,672 individual records of Venezuela's 1971 Census of Population...." The authors find that development does influence migration, that incipient polarization reversal is in evidence in Venezuela in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and that places with different development characteristics generate migration streams differing in type, magnitude, explanation, and impact. It is also found that "while migration undoubtedly influences development, how is not entirely clear." (EXCERPT)
[Fifteenth national census of population and fourth of housing. Vol. 3: education]
These are results from the 1985 census of Colombia concerning education. Information is included on illiteracy and school attendance. The data are presented at national, regional, and local levels. (ANNOTATION)
Development Region D: a socio-economic/demographic profile based on the 1980 population census.
Data from the 1980 census of South Africa are used to present a socioeconomic and demographic analysis of one of the eight development regions into which the country is divided for development planning purposes. Consideration is given to population distribution and composition, age distribution, education, income, economic activity, occupations, employment, and religion. (ANNOTATION)
[Swedish population history: features of trends since 1750]
Demographic trends in Sweden are analyzed from 1750 to the present using data from offical statistical sources. Chapters are included on data and historical data sources; mortality and longevity; fertility and reproduction; internal and international migration; age distribution, marital status, and family and households; educational status; changes in social structure; and changes in and consequences of population growth. (ANNOTATION)
Migration, remittances and the family.
Remittances by migrants, along with migration itself, are elements in a migrant family's intertemporal contractual arrangement. The reasons why the migrant and his family voluntarily enter into a mutually beneficial contractual arrangement with each other rather than with a 3rd party--are discussed, and the conditions under which the contractual arrangement is self-enforcing are identified. Both parties can usually benefit from a number of Pareto-efficient mutual contractual arrangements. This gives rise to an indeterminacy problem, solved through a bargaining process between the parties who consequently converge to a contractual arrangement implying a specific flow of migrant-to-family remittances. The chosen contractual arrangement reflects the relative bargaining powers of the parties, and variables impinging upon these powers thus bear upon remittances. In the light of these arguments, tests are conducted on observed remittance behavior across individual migrants in Botswana. (author's)
How economic development can overcome culture: demographic change in Punjab, India.
This paper examines the recent declines in fertility and mortality that have occurred in the state of Punjab in India and analyzes the evidence that suggests that these have resulted from changes in the sociocultural structure of Punjab--especially those aspects that influence levels of female autonomy. It concludes that in fact rates of births and deaths (especially at the older ages) have fallen in spite of the persistence of cultural norms and practices that limit female autonomy and that should therefore theoretically favor high fertility and mortality. At this stage of the state's demographic transition it mught be more useful to look for causes in the relatively remarkable economic prosperity that the area has witnessed in the last 2 decades. (author's)
Morbidity and nutritional status of breastfed and bottlefed Filipino infants.
Many people in the Philippines, including physicians and nursing mothers, believe that breast feeding will protect infants from many kinds of illness, that bottle feeding exposes infants to risks because of contaminated water, and that declines in breast feeding will contribute to greater infant morbidity. A 2-year study in metro-Manilla measured whether infants who were breast fed for a year were indeed healthier than those who were bottle fed. The results suggest that claims about the health and nutritional superiority of breast milk may be raising mother' expectations too high. (author's)
Marital agreement in fertility goals.
This paper discusses the processes of family formation and change that facilitate or inhibit marital agreement about leaving children: mate selection, shared marital experiences, and mutual influence of wife and husband. A model is developed to represent the simultaneous effects of these processes on fertility agreement, and is tested with survey data from young married couples without children. The findings indicate that mutual influence is the most important source of agreement in fertility goals, but that religious homogamy and similarity of partners' sibship size also contribute to agreement. While educational homogamy is also a source of agreement, partners having similar occupations may be more likely to disagree about children, since occupational prestige increases husbands' fertility goals, but not those of wives. Other important sources of agreement are direct effects of wife's family of origin on the husband's goals, suggesting that husbands are to some extent "absorbed" into the kinship networks of their wives, therby experiencing socialization by in-laws for fertility goals. (author's)
Aspects of migration in an advanced industrial society.
This paper tests the general hypothesis that patterns of migration within and between metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas and regions, and migrant/nonmigrant differences in education attainment during the 1935-1980 periods of US History are reflective of historical differences in socioeconomic development and settlement pattern. Findings regarding gross migration flows during the 1930-1940 period and changes reflected in the 1975-1980 period are consistent with the mobility transition hypothesis, giving support to the idea that developmental impulses, operating primarily through the metropolitanization process, structure the context within which migration occurs. Transformations in socioeconomic structure of periphery region occurring since the Great Depression clearly indicates the presence of a convergence process, which is eroding the differences between the former and the core region with respect to the patterns of migration. Findings also indicate that while migrants have higher education attainment than nonmigrants, migrant/nonmigrant differences in education attainment vary systematically with area differences in socioeconomic development. Specifically migrant/nonmigrant differences in education attainment are (1) similar at origin and destination if both are characterized by similar levels of socioeconomic development; (2) lower at origin relative to destination if the former is higher in socioeconomic development; and (3) higher at origin relative to destination if the latter is higher in socioeconomic development. (author's)
[An analysis of the birth rate in the Soviet Union after World War II]
Changes in the birth rate in the USSR following World War II were studied in an effort to determine why such changes came about. Statistics show that immediately after the war, there was a short period with a high birth rate, after which the curve started to go down. In the 1950s, the rate was relatively stable, but it declined rapidly in the 1960s and reached a record low in the late 1960s. The rate started to go up in the 1970s and at present it is fluctuating at a low level. There are 2 major reasons for these changes. One fact is that the best childbearing ages are 20-29, and from 1960 to 1970, this age group declined due to the low birth rate during World War II. From 1970 to 1980, this age group grew because of the baby boom following the war. Another reason is the change in the childbearing rate of Russian women. This rate is declining for every age group. Reasons for this are: 1) the number of divorces has increased, with a remarriage rate of only 50%; 2) abortions have become more available; 3) there has been a drop in the number of families with several children; and 4) Russian women are becoming more edcated. As a rule, the better educated these women are, the fewer children they will bear. The birth rate in the USSR will remain low unless there is a change in the social structure.
[Applying information to improve family planning in Gaoping County]
The scientific management method of improving family planning through information has produced a low birth rate and natural increase rate in Gaoping County, China, since 1976. In order to promote good family planning, Gaoping County incorporated the scientific management method with the establishment of an information network that included information banks, files, and newspaper columns. The officials of Gaoping County focused their efforts on women most susceptible to unplanned childbirth, e.g., women uneducated in birth control and prenatal care. The women were divided into groups according to their educational needs, e.g., women who were hesitant toward birth control, women who used birth control, women who never reproduced, and women who were newly married. By educating these women to the aspects of planned childbirth, prenatal testing, prenatal care, and contraceptives, Gaoping County effectively promoted good family planning in the areas of birth control and family health. The following statistics are the results of incorporating the scientific management system in family planning of Gaoping County. In 1983, the birth rate in Gaoping County was 11.3%, a 2.8% decline from 1982; the mortality rate decreased 0.2% to a rate of 7.6%; and the natural increase rate decreased 2.6% to a rate of 3.7%. The planned birth rate in 1983 was 90.1% and the rate of 1 child per couple was 91%. This was an increase from the 1982 rates of 21.3% and 25.2%, respectively. From January 1984 to June 1984 the planned birth rate reached 97.2%. These statistics are evidence of the positive results in using information in family planning.
[Impact of educational attainments on women's fertility]
The fertility rates of Chinese women of different educational backgrounds and ages were studied. The results indicate that women with higher educational backgrounds are likely to marry later in life, and have fewer children. The converse is also true; women with little or no education marry very young and have significantly more offspring. It is noted that many of the poory educated are traditionally conservative; they strongly desire at least 1 male offspring, and generally understand the least about matters related to family planning. In terms of economics and human investment, intellectuals are less likely to want more than 1 child. 2 of the most effective ways in which fertility rates may be lowered are to reduce early fertility and to improve the educational levels of women.
Chinese women, particularly those of ethnic minorities were studied 3 major areas: 1) literacy, 2) occupation and 3) the relationship between population growth and literacy and occupation. All of the data referred to are based upon the National Census of 1982. Although there has been substantial improvement in literacy among women of ethnic groups in China since the 1950s, the present situation is still far from satisfactory. Illiteracy is 132.6% higher among women than among men on a national level, and the number of illiterate women belonging to ethnic groups is almost twice that of illiterate men. Among 55 ethnic groups examined, 40 has an illiteracy rate higher than that of the national level. At present, 90% of the members of ethnic groups are involved in traditional occupations such as farming, forestry, and fishing. The percentage of women in nontraditional occupations is much lower than that found on the national level. For instance, the number of male government officials is nationally 763% higher than the number of women in these professions; and it is 806% higher among ethnic groups. It is noted that population growth is directly related to literacy and occupation: The birth rate decreases in proportion to the increase in the number of women becoming educated and joining the work force. It is concluded that in order to lower the birth rate and to improve the status of the national population, the government should promote commodity production and modify the occupational structure by employing more women and further improving education.
The author defends the position of his earlier article that women who are not assured of the survival of their children will be most reluctant to practice modern contraception. It is argued that impoverished conditions favor high parity. In Lagos, Nigeria, family planning services have not altered family formation patterns and 60% of couples want more than 7 children. A lasting reduction in high parity requires not only family planning services but concomitant development in the economic, educational, and health sectors. The eradication of mass illiteracy will form the basis for all other developments that are essential if high maternal death rates are to be reduced. Formal education encourages self-reliance and is a powerful means of changing attitudes and life-styles.
Poverty and household demographic behaviour in Pakistan--insights from PLM survey 1979.
The author seeks to identify socioeconomic correlates of poverty in rural areas of Pakistan and to assess the relationship between fertility behavior and poverty. Three measures of poverty are studied: calorie deficiency, child schooling, and infant mortality. Data from the Population, Labour Force and Migration (PLM) survey and other sources are used to assess the relationship between the poverty so identified and households characteristics such as household income, land ownership, tenurial status and education of the head of the household which form the basis of the class structure used in this paper. Whether the fertility behaviour of the poverty stricken groups is distinct or not is also briefly discussed to understand the interrelationship between demography and poverty." It is found that "socioeconomic groups suffering from higher level of calorie deficiency also mark a poor performance in infant mortality and child schooling." Concerning demographic behavior, "the findings of this paper suggest that the size as well as the formation of household is a response and represents a household survival strategy....That large family size may constitute a source of strength rather than burden appears to be the case in rural areas of Pakistan....The fertility behaviour of the poverty stricken groups is not found significantly different than the average. It [is] noted that except a selected top income group the reproductive behaviour in Pakistan is fairly homogeneous."
The author attempts to estimate the prevalence and patterns of breast-feeding in Pakistan and to assess differentials in mean duration of breast-feeding by selected background and demographic factors. "The data used in this analysis [are] mainly drawn from the Population, Labour Force and Migration (PLM) survey, carried out on a random sample basis for the entire country in 1979 and 1980." The data were collected in interviews with 9,732 ever-married women aged 10-49. Data for all births occurring in the four years prior to the survey are selected, and a method developed by Mosley for estimating length of lactation is used. It is found that maternal age, parity, place of residence, and women's education have a direct effect on duration of breast-feeding, while place of work and husband's occupation have no significant effect. Differentials in length of breast-feeding by woman's occupation are also noted. Some comparisons are made between the findings of the PLM study and the 1979 Pakistan Fertility Survey (EXCERPT)
[Micro-census: annual results from 1985]
Results from the 1984 micro-census of Austria are presented, together with some comparative statistics for 1982-1984. Data concerning the resident population include information on employment status, age, sex, marital status, citizenship, and educational level. Tables also provide data on women aged 15 and older by age, socioeconomic status, and presence of children; type of community and economic and labor force factors; state and age, sex, labor force, and socioeconomic factors; and female labor force participation. Other sections cover labor force characteristics, private households, families, and housing.
Is child schooling a poor proxy for child quality?
"Child quality plays a critical role in economic models of fertility and child investment. But child quality is difficult to observe empirically. Therefore, in empirical studies, child quality is frequently represented by child schooling. However, economic models of household investment in children suggest that child schooling may be a very poor or even inverse proxy for child quality." (EXCERPT)
[The demographic situation in Quebec: 1987 edition]
Data on the demographic situation in the province of Quebec, Canada, are presented together with an analysis of the data, the most recent of which are for 1985. Information is included on life expectancy, infant mortality, age-specific mortality rates, and causes of death; fertility by age and parity, illegitimacy, induced abortion, and sterilizations; marital status and marriage duration; international and interprovincial migration; and social characteristics, including language, education, religion, and seasonal movements. (ANNOTATION)
This is one in a series of reports presenting results from the 1982 census of Chile. Data are included on population by sex and age group, labor force, literacy, housing, and households. The data are organized by region, province, and locality. (ANNOTATION)
The authors analyze mortality trends in the Sucre district of Miranda state, Venezuela. Data are based on information from all birth and death certificates issued during 1984. Aspects considered include social class, life expectancy, infant mortality, and causes of death. Health and demographic characteristics of the area are investigated, including geography, population growth, educational level, economic activity, and sanitary conditions. Data are also presented on age and sex differentials in mortality, family patterns, accidents, and occupational deaths.
Results of the 1981 census of Italy are presented for the whole country. The data are contained in two parts: the first part includes a breakdown by region, the second a breakdown by general characteristics. Data are included on population distribution and density, sex distribution, population temporarily absent, age distribution, place of birth, occupation, marital status, educational status, economic activity, foreign population, families, and housing. (ANNOTATION)
The incomes of recent immigrants: a look at ethnic differences.
"This research examines family income differentials that exist among 18 different ethnic groups that immigrated to the United States between 1970 and 1980. Family size and fertility, education levels, labor force participation, geographic location, and facility with the English language are found to be important determinants of immigrant incomes, although it is likely that what Sowell has labeled the 'cultural inheritance' of ethnic groups is also important." (EXCERPT)
Issues related to the preparation of young people for marriage in the USSR are discussed. Topics considered include how and where couples first meet, educational status, and housing. Information is also included on young people's opinions concerning ideal family size, child rearing, sharing household chores, and material well-being. (ANNOTATION)
Statistical reports of region: Eastern region.
This is the first in a planned series of reports presenting statistical data for the regions of Thailand. A section of population statistics includes data for 1980 on population by age group, sex, and area; religion; place of previous residence; literacy; occupations; population characteristics; vital statistics, 1977-1984; population dynamics, 1981-1985; population density; and fertility. (ANNOTATION)
Demographic and socio-economic indicators on population and development.
This report presents a selection of demographic and socioeconomic indicators for a wide range of countries. The data are from U.N. and World Bank sources. The report has two stated objectives: the first is to examine the relationship between population and development; the second is to show the relative demographic situation of Asian countries. Data are provided on population size and growth; age distribution; urban population; summary vital statistics; life expectancy; population per doctor, nurse, and teacher; nutrition, health, and education expenditure; school enrollment; literacy; GNP; labor force; industry; food production; and development assistance.
Income, fertility, and economic development.
This report uses available data for 126 nations, circa 1983, to examine the cross-sectional relationship between national income and fertility. Initially, interest is in assessing the extent of variability in this relationship among societies at different stages of economic development. 2nd, this relationship is decomposed into its direct and indirect parts though the use of a plausible recursive model containing school enrollment and infant mortality as sequentially intervening variables. Findings suggest that the cross-sectional relationship between national income and fertility varies widely by stage of economic development. Further, school enrollment and infant mortality also vary widely in importance by stage of development. The variability in the relationships is relevant both to traditional views of demographic transition and to alternative approaches based on the differentiation of nations within a larger world economy, as well as to the implementation of social programs in the context of fertility reduction strategies. (author's)
A demographic profile of older Euro-Americans.
The author analyzes 1980 U.S. census data to develop a demographic profile of first-generation European immigrants over age 65 in the United States. The findings are provided in tables and charts and concern age, marital status, and education by sex and country; sex ratio, child and old-age dependency ratios, and non-English language use by country of origin; number and age distribution by sex and time of immigration for 11 Euro-American immigrant groups of 100,000 or more; and labor force participation of immigrants before 1960 by sex for those over age 55. Information on the demographic characteristics, living arrangements, and poverty and public assistance status of Euro-American immigrants living in New York City is included in three tables. The data are intended primarily to assist providers of services to the immigrant elderly.
Women's employment and recent fertility in Egypt and Ghana.
The author outlines "the overall levels, patterns and structure of women's employment in Egypt and Ghana...[and examines] the relationship between women's participation in the labour force and recent fertility in both countries." Data are from the Egyptian Fertility Survey of 1980 and the Ghana Fertility Survey of 1979-1980. Tabular data are included on labor force participation by age, marital status, educational level, husband's occupation, and husband's education; occupational structure by rural or urban residence; fertility by educational level, work experience, and rural or urban residence; and contraceptive use by work experience and rural or urban residence (EXCERPT)
Contraception and the status of women: what is the link?
"In this article, we explore the notion that easy access to near-perfect contraception--that is, contraception that allows virtually complete control over the occurrence and timing of childbearing--is an important factor contributing to improvements in the status of women, in and of itself, whether or not it lowers fertility. We measure women's status in terms of education and wage rates relative to those of men, although these two variables are by no means the only definition of the status of women." The geographic focus is on the United States, with some data from other countries included This is a revised version of a paper originally presented at the 1986 Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America (see Population Index, Vol. 52, No. 3, Fall 1986, p. 406) (EXCERPT)
[Population development and changes of China's minority nationalities]
The People's Republic of China (PRC) is a nation composed of many ethnic groups. After the Communist victory of 1947, the government announced that there were 55 minority nationalities. The 1982 census provides demographic statistics concerning the position of those minorities within the population of the PRC. Since 1964, minority population has increased more rapidly than the population of the Han majority. Between 1953 and 1982, China's population increased 73.2%. The Han population increased 71.2%, the minorities, 90.4%. According to the 1982 census, the total fertility rate of the village-dwelling minorities in 1981 was 5.1%, while the fertility rate of the majority was 2.7%. The mortality rate of the various minorities decreased to the level of that of the Han. Consequently, the percentage of minorities in the total population also increased, from 5.8% of the total population in 1964 to 6.7% in 1982. The reasons for this increase include the following: the change in population reproduction brought about by democratic and socialist reform; the identification of minorities; improvement in health and medical facilities; the reinstatement of and change in racial minority policy promulgated in 1978; and intermarriage between minorities and Han Chinese. Although the minorities account for only 6.7% of China's total population, their distribution constitutes 62.5% of the nation's total area. In the past, the minorities have scattered to the various parts of the country and mingled with other ethnic groups. The high density of minorities is concentrated in the plains where the climate is mild and agricultural produce, such as wheat, rice, and corn, are cultivated. The lowest density areas with respect to the minorities are the inland highlands, deserts, and cold pastoral areas. The age structure of the minorities is young; the marriageable population is numerous; and the fertility rate is high. The educational standard of the minorities has been greatly enhanced, but is still lower than that of the Han Chinese.
[Maternal Child Health and Family Planning Survey, 1982, Amazonas, Brazil]
Research encompassing various topics concerning maternal-child health and family planning was conducted August to September 1982 in the urban areas of the state of Amazonas. Tenth in a series of state studies by the Civil Association for Family Well-Being in Brazil (BEMFAM), the research was carried out together with diverse state, national and foreign (including U.S.) institutions. Topics include: research methodology, demographic analysis, history of spontaneous and induced abortions; planning of the most recent pregnancy and the intent to conceive; previous knowledge and use of family planning methods; contraceptive use, supply sources and availability; reasons not to use contraceptives and desire to use them in the future; immediate needs for family planning services; demand for sterilization services; maternal-child care services; and immunization levels. Findings: abortion in urban areas is a serious public health problem, often induced in unsafe conditions; 35% of married women's pregnancies are unwanted; pregnancy out of wedlock is common; and, although most women know at least one family planning method, and equal number are unfamiliar with effective methods due to lack of information and availability. The use of contraceptive devices and sterilization is directly correlated to educational level and family income; main supply sources are private doctors or the pharmacy; the need for family planning is inversely proportional to education and domestic income; 60,000 women use contraceptives and another 25,000 are in need of them; a significant number of women interested in being sterilized fail to do so because of personal reasons (e.g. fear) or institutional barriers (cost or medical denial); the level of immunization is directly proportional to increase in family income; and, although the National Vaccination Campaign significantly increased the immunization levels of children, these services remain inadequate.
[Report on the 1984 International Population Conference]
This report summarizes the preparatory meetings, documents, debates, declarations, recommendations and minutes of the UN-sponsored International Population Conference held August 6-14, 1984 in Mexico City. 1025 delegates from 146 countries took part. An overview of the state of the world's population was presented at the plenary session. Global economic growth slowed during the 1970s (2.6% increase in per capita Gross National Product vs. 3.3% in the prior decade). The nutritional situation deteriorated further in Africa, necessitating continued food imports. Notable progress was made in education: 86% of school-age children were attending school in 1980 vs. 60% in 1960. However, the number of illiterate persons increased from 760 million in 1970 to 825 million in 1980. Health care and employment showed little improvement. The deterioration of natural resources was also cause for concern. The total world population increased from 4 billion in 1974 (date of the previous conference) to 4.8 billion in 1984, despite decreasing fertility rates in China (from 2.4% to 1.2%), mainly due to a lower mortality rate. If present growth trends continue, particularly in Africa, Latin America and Asia, by 2025 the world population will number over 8 billion. Europe's population will grow from 490 million in 1980 to 527 million in 2025 (USSR from 276 to 387 million and North America from 235 to 347 million). Not until the year 2000 will life expectancy in developing countries reach 62 (72-74 in the 1980s in Europe and North America). Advances were made in family planning, especially in China where 70% of all couples practice birth control vs. 10% in Africa and 25% in South Asia. Other trends and issues (status of women, urbanization, migration, aging population) were discussed, and a final communique was issued.
[Natural family planning: international development, present status, future prospects]
The last 10 years have seen a growing general and scientific interest in the natural family planning (NFP) movement. The major NFP work of the last decade has consisted of determining the fertile period by observing the primary fertility parameters. 1st, changes in the serum and urine were used as indicators; then, secondary phenomena such as body temperature and changes in the cervix and cervical mucus were used; now, ultrasound can be used to detect the growth and rupture of the follicle, thus measuring the validity or limitations of the parameters being used. Other foci of research are the use of NFP in special situations such as postpartum, premenopause, and adolescence, and improving measurements of effectiveness by separating method error from user error. The 3 phases of development of an NFP movement are: pioneer, expansion and demonstration, and planning and coordination. Since the 1970s, there has been increased internationalization of the movement, with various organizations including NFP in their Third World population programs. The lower effectiveness rate of NFP in groups with poor educational programs shows that there is a need for improvement in NFP education. There are efforts underway to improve the supervision of NFP instructors and to make better use of the media in expanding the NFP movement. Increased coordination between organizations promoting NFP is expected to lead to better standardization of methods.
This thesis discusses the importance of health education in improving the level of health of a population and presents results of a survey of health knowledge and practices in the city of Bangui, the town of Bambari, and the rural Bambari hinterland in the Central African Republic. The 43 survey questions provided data on the place of interview, demographic and sociocultural characteristics of the respondents, characteristics of their children, and health knowledge. The work begins with descriptions of the political and economic organization of the Central African Republic, relevent characteristics of the study area, and the formal health structure of the Central African Republic. The survey methodology for the 3 survey areas is then detailed. 2676 interviews were conducted in Bangui, 786 in the town of Bambari, and 621 in rural areas of Bambari. The results for the 3 geographic areas are presented in a series of tables on number of child deaths, spontaneous or induced abortions, educational level, economic activity, health centers attended, stillbirths, infertility of women over 50 years old, contraceptive practices, attitude toward abortion, diet during pregnancy, source of water, mass media usage, infant feeding and weaning, infant health status, family size preferences, and household size. 35.18% of the mothers in Bangui, 28.18% in urban Bambari, and 5.62% in rural Bambari had 3 or fewer children. 39% in Bangui, 28% in urban Bambari, and 5% in rural Bambari had never had a child death. 5.5% of respondents in Bangui, 25.8% in Bambari town and 79% in rural Bambari relied on traditional sources of health care. 4.76% of women over 50 in Bangui, 5.9% in urban Bambari and 3.8% in rural Bambari had never had children. Large proportions in all 3 areas failed to respond to questions about contraceptive knowledge. 23.6% in Bangui, 2.43% in urban Bambari and less than 1% in rural Bambari reported knowledge of modern contraceptive methods. The proportion disapproving of abortions ranged from 69.73% in Bangui to 95.20% in rural Bambari. 51.3% in Bangui, 80.1% in urban Bambari and 93.64% in rural Bambari reported breastfeeding their children. 56.96% in Bangui, 54.58% in urban Bambari and 19.98% in rural Bambari were in favor of birth spacing. Radio appears to be the surest means of communication in the Central African Republic. It should be utilized, along with health establishments, for health education programs.
[Level of knowledge on fertility in Senegal and future prospects]
Although Senegal is currently in the 2nd phase of the demographic transition, there is little reason to believe that it will follow the classic pattern of rapid fertility decline following the mortality decline. At current rates of growth, the population will nearly double by the year 2000, posing serious problems of socioeconomic development. Senegalese cultural traits were formed at a time when scarcely half of all children born survived to 5 years. Fertility cannot be expected to decline significantly until parents have become aware that most childen will survive to adulthood. Islam, the religion of most Senegalese, exalts fertility but only in a sense that would today be called "responsible parenthood". The socioeconomic structure of Senegal in which most production is labor intensive is a more important determinant of pronatalist attitudes. Kinship and the extended family still play an important role in rural areas especially, and have a strongly pronatalist effect. Population growth is a real problem because of the limited and often nonrenewable nature of resources. It is recognized that rapid population growth increases the difficulties of economic development. Sources of data on Senegalese fertility include 3 national level demographic surveys carried out in 1960-61, 1970-71, and 1978-79, a survey of fertility in Dakar, the Senegalese Fertility Survey, and numerous monographs on population problems related to fertility and contraception. Results of the Senegalese Fertility Survey indicated that the crude birth rate was 48/1000 around 1978, and the family size of women aged 44-49 was 7.2 children. The average number of live births per woman for the entire population was 4.03 for nonsingle women and .15 for single women. Only about 5% of women exposed to risk of conception use modern contraception. The average age at marriage is around 16.1 years, and by age 30 some 99.8% of women have been married. The relative instability of unions is counterbalanced by the rapidity of remarriage. Polygamy is widespread. Fertility has varied little over the past few decades except in urban areas, where more educated girls tend to marry at later ages. The Senegalese Fertility Survey also indicated that education is the only true fertility differential in Senegal; neither urban residence, ethnic group, or region of residence had a noticeable effect. The primary infertility rate for women over age 25 is about 6%. The average duration of breast feeding is about 18.5 months but is shorter among younger women. Because of the infrequent use of modern contraception, the main determinants of Senegalese fertility appear to be age at 1st marriage, duration of lactation, and the desire for large families. But age at 1st marriage is increasing with urbanization and education and the duration of lactation is declining among the most urbanized and educated women. The development of these factors along with declines in infant and child mortality and increased demand for family planning may change future fertility patterns. Previous studies in Senegal have furnished considerable information on the level, structure, and determinants of fertility. Future research should focus on the evolution of fertility and on fertility differentials and determinants. Specifically a study is proposed of 2000 women aged 13-45 years in Dakar to identify changes in fertility behavior.
[Demo-economic characteristics of Brazilian rural families]
The authors analyze the structure of the rural Brazilian household and family. They examine factors such as age, marital status, educational level, income, and labor force activity, using sample data from the 1983 National Household Survey. Chapters are included on survey objectives, scope, and limitations; definitions and classification methods; a retrospective survey of past work; urban and rural populations; lines of convergence and quantitative differences; an interregional analysis; families and households; and income, occupation, and level of education. Bibliographic references and a statistical appendix are also included.
[Family planning promotes social and economic development of Dongguan County]
Examination of the effects of family planning indicates 6 major social and economic changes which it has brought about in Dongguan County, China. Peoples' views on family planning have changed: they no longer believe the old notion that "more children guarantee a better life" and have done away with the convention of early marriage and early childbearing. The number of children per household has dropped from an average of 5.9 in the early 1950s to its present average of 2.05. The situation of women has undergone important changes. In the past, women bore many children and few worked outside the household. Today, in the city of Guancheng, 7000 of the 10,000 workers in city-owned factories are women. A 3rd effect of population control is increased production output and a better standard of living. Since 1979 when economic reform began, 90% of the presents built new homes and 70% of the households bought high standard consumer goods. A 4th improvement has been found in the development of education: 99.7% of school-age children attend elementary schools and the rate of graduating students is 98.2%; 92% of preschool children are involved in preschool programs; and 67,000 young women attend various kinds of vocational schools. A more civilized life style and more harmonious family lives have found as a 5th result of family planning measures. Finally, there have also been improvements in welfare and public sanitation facilities. For example, more than 200 water plants have been built in the county and 41% of the population drinks water which meets sanitation standards. It is concluded that the beneficial results of population control reported in this study should be of interest to all those involved in the field of family planning.
[Comparative analysis of the index of our population life quality]
A comprehensive method of calculating and measuring a country's or an area's health and literacy levels is examined. The method, known as population quality life inference (PQLI), was used to determine which of China's provinces has the highest and the lowest degree of population quality. The PQLI indicates infant mortality, average life expectancy of 1 year olds, and literacy rates of those 15 years and older. Because developing countries traditionally have high rates of infant mortality and illiteracy and low life expectancy rates during their industrialization, measuring the degree of population quality of life improvement of such countries during this period was found to be significant. These factors (infant mortality, illiteracy, and life expectancy) will improve substantially as industrialization continues. In order to compare various areas, these 3 factors must be changed into "inferences" 0-100, "0" representing the lowest population quality and "100" the highest. These 3 inferences must then be averaged in order to calculate the PQLI. For example: life expectancy value 77 (highest in the world) minus 38 (lowest)/100 = .39. In order to measure the value of India's life expectancy: value of 1-year-old's life expectancy = 56 (1-year-old's life expectancy in India) minus 38/.39 = 46. The value of adult illiteracy does not need to be changed. Thus, the actual comparison will be based on the values of the 3 inferences. Using this method of calculation, it is concluded that the PQLI analysis indicated that Peking (93.04) is the highest in China and Yumnan Province (60.72) is the lowest.
Social development: situation of youth in the 1980s. Report of the Secretary-General.
This report reviews the situation of youth (aged 15-24) in the 1980s. It includes a demographic profile and considers general trends in the 1st half of the 1980s, i.e., the need for integrated youth policy and planning and the position of youth in the global social and economic structure. Youth in marginal situations are considered and regional perspectives -- Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Europe and North America, Latin America, and Western Asia -- are offered. The present global youth population is estimated to be 922 million, which constitutes 19.4% of the total global population, and is projected to exceed 1000 million toward the end of the decade. The concept of youth has been evolving at a rapid pace since the 1960s because of the recognition that youth, despite the heterogenity of its components, constitutes a social group with its own specific identity, needs, problems and cultural configurations, and because of the actual articulation of these issues by young people in different parts of the world. The international community has been cognizant of these specific needs, and considerable efforts have been invested in dealing with the problem. Young people constitute a group that is particularly vulnerable to the effects of the global crisis. Conversely the way out of the crisis -- the development process -- is also closely linked to the situation of youth and their possible participation in it. The essential dynamic of the situation of young people is that they often are agents of social change, yet, equally often, they are the victims of that change. The early 1980s have been a period of considerable economic and social transformation throughout the world. The involvement of young people in this process has been of the dual nature identified. Thus, it follows that the crucial need during the remainder of the decade, from the point of view of youth, is to minimize their marginalization and to maximize their participation in the development process. An important element in planning for this adjustment would be an assessment of how the situation of young people changed and developed globally, and in the major regions of the world, in recent years. The UN International Youth Year has provided an opportunity for integrating policies and programs pertaining to youth and for strengthening the linkages among the national, regional, and international levels at which these policies and programs operate.
Youth Canada: problems and prospects. A review of the literature.
A search of periodical and report literature of youth, age 15-24, was conducted to establish a profile of problems and prospects of Canadian youth. This profile reflects regional differences and salient features of family, work situations, and the social context. Major study findings are aggregated under the following headings: influences of family and peers; effects of educational experience; economic aspects -- orientation to the work world; ethnic, regional, and cultural differences and migration; personal health; and social participation. Family attachments continue to be important. Most young people reside with their families until schooling is completed and often beyond. They remain there both by choice and by economic necessity. Peer groups generally are perceived to be important to young people, but it is difficult to pinpoint the precise significance of this influence on youth. The main impact seems to fall on social activities outside the educational and work context -- the world of popular culture. Formal institutional experience of mass education is common to some 94% of teenage youth; the other 6% of teenagers are variously enrolled either in private education or in other institutionalized settings (correctional, custodial). Despite the near universality of mass education, more than a quarter of all youth do not graduate from secondary school. Counseling and guidance services appear to be insufficient and ineffective especially among students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. The chronic concern over attachment of youth to work has exacerbated as the rate of youth unemployment has ascended for the 1st time in a decade beyond 20% of those eligible. In comparison with adults in the work world, youth employment is more seasonal, part-time, and liable to high turnover. Geographic mobility in job search is generally low. It is only found with any frequency in the Prairies and to a lesser extent in British Columbia. Immigrant and second-generation youth follow a dual-track socialization; they experience pressure in school and community to assimilate. Family pressures attempt to continue traditions from the home country. Francophone youth in Canada distinguish themselves by the importance which they attach to their role as culture-and-language-bearer. Yet, the amount of social and political participation of francophone youth is practically the same as that of their anglophone age mates. The difference lies in the focus of their interests and the tenacity with which they are expressed. Although the rate of sexual activities has increased among youth during the past 2 decades, counseling, information, and medical assistance do not appear to be available to youth on a scale commensurate with this escalation. The rate of adolescent suicides has increased steadily over the last decade. With respect to sports and related participation, youth have consistently recorded the highest rates of participation of any age group.
204 mothers of infants 1-12 months of age were interviewed upon admission of their infant suffering from acute diarrhea to Al Sabah and Al Ameri hospitals in Kuwait. The aim was to assess the frequency of breastfeeding, causes of decline, and to understand the type of electrolyte imbalance among infants on different types of feeding. On interview 29% of the infants were breastfed, 56.5% artificially fed, and 14.5% were on mixed feeding. 60% of the mothers giving their infants artificial milk changed their infants' milk. 70% of the mothers who changed the milk did so on the advice of clinic staff. During preparation 74% of mothers added the powder to the water, 21% added the water on top of the powder and 6% were not sure what to add 1st. The source of drinking water used for infants was different among mothers of different levels of education: 76% of illiterate mothers were using unsterilized water and mothers with higher degrees of education were using mineral water. Regarding electrolyte imbalances, a higher prevalence of hyponatraemia and hypokalaemia than hypernatraemia was observed. There was no significant association between acute diarrhea, type of feeding, measurement of milk powder and electrolyte disturbances. However, there was an association between maternal education and hyponatraemia, more common among infants of illiterate mothers, while hypernatraemia was higher among infants whose mothers were working outside the home. Clearly the problem lies in neither the type of feeding, nor the electrolyte imbalance, but in the education of the mother and the clinic staff.
[Regional variations in women's fertility in Poland in 1975]
A correlation regression analysis of differential fertility by geographic area in Poland is presented using 1975 data for the 49 voivodships. Rural and urban populations are analyzed separately. The effect on fertility of such factors as residence, occupation, age, marital status, and educational status are considered. (SUMMARY IN ENG AND RUS) (ANNOTATION)
[World population and demographic prospects]
A review of global population trends and prospects is presented. Data are from published sources, including U.N. sources. The period covered is from the eighteenth century to the year 2000. Topics covered include population growth by region, life expectancy, age distribution, demographic aging, school attendance, labor force developments, occupations, and urbanization. (ANNOTATION)
[Trends of world demographic development]
A review of global population trends is presented. The publication is in three parts, dealing with the periods 1950-1970, 1970-1980, and 1980-2000, respectively. Separate consideration is given to fertility, mortality, natural increase, reproduction rates, life expectancy, age distribution, urbanization, and literacy. The data are primarily taken from published U.N. sources. (ANNOTATION)
Infant mortality: a review of causes and trends.
The goal for reproductive health proposed in this report is that all pregnancies should be intended and cared for so that children and their families experience a miniumum of mortality and the lowest possible incidence of morbidity. 4 problems are: 1) too many pregnancies are unintended, 2) too many normal birth weight infants die, 3) too many low birth weight infants are born, and 4) too many cases of development disabilities occur. The gap between reproductive health and raising healthy children is concentrated on adolescents, blacks, and the educationally or economically disadvantaged. Based on data from the 1980 Natality Survey of the National Center for Health Statistics, the rates of US infant mortality has declined 4.8% among blacks and 5.1% among whites in the last few years. Low birth weight, especially during the neonatal period, is not only a profound determiner of death, it is also a reflection of our ability to help women get to term. Black infants are almost 4 times more likely to be of low birth weight than those born to white women who are at least 20 years of age, have 13 years or more of education, and sought prenatal care in the 1st trimester. Interventions that will reduce mortality will probably reduce morbidity as well. Women experiencing unintended pregnancies tend to have similar characteristics to women who experience an infant death; hence, the reduction of unintended births could lead to the reduction of infant mortality rates. Recommendations for reducting unintended pregnancy by 65% by the year 2000 include: 1) institute public education and disseminate information locally through schools, churches, and community groups; 2) enact legislation to ensure access to family planning, to prenatal care, to information about preventive care, and to counseling about genetic diseases; 3) disseminate accurate and timely information from the public health sector to monitor regional progress toward these goals, and 4) develop creative strategies to improve standard of living and education.
The value of children and fertility in Iran: a pilot study (research report).
Iranian culture is generally considered pronatalist, partly due to both preIslamic Zorostanian religion and Islam. However, there are socioeconomic indications for high fertility. High fertility augments the political and social power of tribes as well as the security of farm families and villages. This dissertation explores the value of children among both rural and urban populations. Surprisingly, the author found no religious value attached to having children or having a large number of children. Rural and urban parents have a strong perception of the social functions of children, which reinforces their status in the community. While urban parents perceive more psychological values, rural parents have stronger perceptions of economic utilities and particularly of the economic utilities of a large family. A major concern of urban parents is the cost of education. The author found a significant relationship between the perceived utilities of children on the 1 hand and education, working status, rural background, and the consumption of modern goods on the other hand. These differentials in the perceived utility of children are discussed within the context of the existing differential fertility and the post-revolutionary birth rate increase in Iran. (author's modified)
The effect of culture and religion on family formation in Sri Lanka.
Sri Lankan childbearing takes place within marriage; hence fertility is determined by 2 factors--the proportion of married women in its population and the fertility of married women. From 1963 to 1971 the largest contribution for the total fertility rate (TFR) decline was the changes in the frequency and rise in age at marriage. In Sri Lanka, industrialization is not adequately developed, and the economy is predominantly agro based. The TFR has declined from about 5 in the 1960s to 3.5 births per woman in 1981. Urban women in general have low levels of fertility compared to women in rural areas. Education is another strong determinant of fertility; an increase in the education of women tends to lower the fertility to a greater extent than a similar increase in the education of men. Education affects fertility in the following ways: 1) it increases labor force participation of women, 2) it increases age at marriage, 3) it increases receptivity to family planning, and 4) it brings about a modern outlook that is conductive to fertility reduction. Overall, the decline in fertility experienced in Sri Lanka is due to a variety of factors such as the expansion of education facilities to women and their consequent participation in the labor force, the provision of health and housing facilities, and above all the rise in the age of marriage and its frequency.
Ethno-demographic study of tribal population in India.
This study deals with the demographic aspects of the tribal population of India and whenever possible relates these aspects to the social and economic situation of the tribals to explain the variations. The study uses census data and is restricted to the intercensal period 1961-1971. The 1981 census shows about 7.8% of the total population to be members of scheduled tribe communities. In the previous 2 censuses, the tribals constituted slightly less than 7% of the population; these differences are partly due to differential growth rates and partly due to changes in census procedures. While the total population in areas where tribes are scheduled declined slightly during the 1970s, the tribal population registered an increase. This increase in the growth rate of the tribal population could be due to many causes, including a decline in the death rate, an over-registration of tribals in the last census as a result of the removal of area restrictions, and the heavy movement of the tribal population from neighboring states where tribes are not scheduled or even from beyond international boundaries. Data indicate that birth and death rates have remained steadily high among the tribals due to low standards of living, mass illiteracy, and unfavorable environmental conditions. Tribal fertility is relatively lower in the northern and southern regions, and mortality is comparatively lower in the far-eastern and southern regions. Sex composition is relatively more balanced in the tribals than in non-tribals, indicating the better treatment of women. The tribal population is younger than the total population. The government has instituted a number of development programs including educational programs. The tribal economy is still at such a low level that each family member, including children, must work. Although the tribals constitute nearly 7.8% of the total population, their share of the work force is around 10%. Development programs should aim at shifting workers from agricultural to non-agricultural forms of employment.
Closing the gap: forty years of economic progress for blacks.
Forty years ago, Gunnar Myrdal assessed the economic situation of blacks in America as pathological. The 40-year record clearly points to a significant and quantitatively large improvement in the relative economic status of black men. In 1940 the typical black male earned around $4500 (in 1984 dollars); a similarly employed black male earned almost $19,000 by 1980. The typical black male worker in 1940 earned only 43% as much as his white counterpart; by 1980 the figure was 73%. Whether distinguishing between low or middle-income blacks, between the old and the young, or the more or less educated, the incomes of black men have risen relative to comparable whites. The data show simultaneously the persistence of black poverty, the growth of the black middle class, and the emergence of a nonnegligible black upper class. The growth in size of the black middle class is so spectacular that as a group it outnumbers the black poor. The 2 dimensions of education that closed the racial wage gap are the narrowing of educational disparities between the races and the improving economic return to black schooling. Southern black migration to Northern cities increased black-white male wage ratios by 11-19% between 1940 and 1980, but the income gains from migration were largely exhausted by 1970. After 1970, the wages of both black and white men increased faster in the South than in the rest of the country. The introduction of the mechanical cotton picker caused a sharp decline in the demand for a largely Southern black labor force in cotton and gave additional impetus to the migration of young Southern blacks to the North. The increasing tendency of many middle-aged black men to drop out of the labor force is an important and neglected social problem. Affirmative action resulted in a radical reshuffling of black jobs in the labor force. Unfortunately, its ability to raise the incomes of black men has proven to be far more difficult to achieve.
Desired family size and its determinants among urban Nigerian women: a two-stage analysis.
The study of family size preferences, considered an important fertility determinant, is often hampered by non-numeric fatalistic responses. On the assumption that fatalistic responses do not necessarily represent a lack of desire to control fertility but rather a feeling of lack of control over the number of children, a 2-stage survey was designed: the 1st stage analyzing the degree of fatalism in the population and the 2nd excluding women not expressing fertility desires. The data were collected in a household survey in Ilorin, Nigeria during 5 months in 1983-84. 932 households were sampled, and 913 currently-married women aged 15-35 were interviewed. Several independent variables were used, e.g. income and wealth; opportunity costs of children measured by factors such as women's education. 53.6% of women expressed non-numerical family size desires. 25.6% of all women preferred 5-6; 11.4% preferred <5; and 9.4% preferred >6. Younger women, women with fewer children, women residing in low socioeconomic areas, women in polygamous marriages, Moslem women, women expessing no sex preference, women with no contraceptive knowledge, and women with no education were more likely to provide non-numeric answers. The number of surviving children, socoeconomic status, educational status of women, and the existence of a preference for a specific sex composition affected numerical desires in women expressing them. It is probable that a sequence of attitude changes, beginning with a transition from non-numerical to numerical desires, must take place before fertility reduction takes place n very traditional societies. This seems to be borne out by data from different time periods in other developing countries. A 2-stage analytic approach to the family size question may be advisable in countries where a large proportion of women express non-numerical desires.
This report examines the characteristic trends in socioeconomic, demographic, fertility, and marriage patterns of a sample of 48 acceptors of sterilization in an urban situation in India. The sample represents a universe of 211 acceptors out of 1171 eligible couples and 10,000 population. The analysis yields valuable information on the correlation between socioeconomic and demographic variables. Wives' education and residential status are negatively and significantly correlated with family size. The mean ages at vasectomy and tubectomy are 38.3 and 28.1 years respectively. The mean number of living children at the time of tubectomy is 3.4. About 69% of the women have had only live births. The mean number of years of fertile marital union is 12.19. The mean number of conceptions is 4.4. The mean achieved family size is 3.3 living children and the mean ideal family size ranges from 2.13 to 2.5. (author's)
Social and demographic characteristics influencing adoption of female sterilisation.
This paper analyzes the relationship between the adoption of female sterilization and 3 social and modernization variables (education, income, and family type) and 2 demographic variables (number of living children and years of marriage) for a sample of 200. The influence of each of these 5 variables on female sterilization is studied by the percentage distribution method and the variance test. The data are analyzed by using the urban-rural and adopter-nonadopter classification. Results show that the social and modernization variables do not seem to influence the adoption of female sterilization among urban or rural households, but the demographic variables--number of living children and years of marriage--do seem to have a clear influence. Among rural households there are differences in these variables between adopters and nonadopters of female sterilization. There is a policy implication here: the government has to advocate the 2 child norm to all eligible couples in the early years of marriage and advise them to adopt sterilization after the birth of the 2nd child. This will go a long way in achieving the national target of the replacement level of reproduction by the year 2000. (author's)
One parent families: a social and economic profile.
This paper uses US census data to document the extent to which one parent families tend to have social and economic characteristics that compare unfavorably with those of 2 parent families. By most objective measurements, the vast majority of one parent families hold a disadvantageous position in society relative to other family groups. They are characterized by a high rate of poverty, a high percentage of minority representation, relatively low education, and a high rate of mobility. In short, as a group, they generally have little equity or stature in American society and constitute a group with unusually pressing social and economic needs. This paper demonstrates that the one parent experience is much more extensive than is ordinarily thought. 1 out of every 5 families with children under 18 years old in 1984 was a one parent family, up from 1 of every 10 in 1970. There were 3.2 million one parent families in 1970 and 6.7 million in 1984. In 1984, 88% of one parent families were mother-child families. Mother-child families are increasingly younger. The median age of mothers maintaining families alone dropped from 37.2 years in 1970 to 34.6 years in 1984--the same median age as that for mothers in two parent families in 1984. One of the ways in which fathers who maintain a family alone are much better situated than their female counterparts to realize economic security is their higher level of educational attainment. Men who maintain one parent families are much better situated economically than their female counterparts. The number of one parent families demonstrate that the magnitude of the problem of providing assistance to the families in need is great.
Disadvantaged single teenage mothers and their children: consequences of free educational day care.
The benefits of providing free educational day care from birth to children of 29 single US teenage mothers were examined in a 4 1/2 year longitudinal study. An analysis of the data indicates that the children benefitted intellectually from the program, scoring significantly higher than controls on a general cognitive index. Mothers had an increased likelihood of completing high school, obtaining post-secondary training, and becoming self-supporting. The mothers in both the experimental and control groups had access to the same basic set of community resources. They attended the same secondary schools, had access to the same college and vocational school system, and had the same resources for low cost medical care for themselves. Thus, it was concluded that easy access to good day care service beginning in their child's infancy was probably an important factor in the differential success rate of the experimental group. Because assignment to the intervention condition was random, the present study is free from any bias obtained in those studies where highly motivated parents self-select day care. The study did not contrast the achievements of teenage mothers for whom day care of any sort was provided with those mothers who had no day care availible. The benefits to this sample of single teenage mothers of having easy access to good child care seem clear. The greatest impact was in terms of greater educational attainment.
Preliminary analysis on China's employed population.
This paper makes a preliminary analysis of the employment status, economic structure, age-sex structure, educational, and scientific status of the employed, as well as the characteristics of China's national minorities. China is most abundant in manpower resources, with a working-age population accounting for 61.49% of the total population. The working age limit set by China is 16-60 for males and 16-55 for females, which amounts to 87.51% of the labor resources. It is of great importance to study the age-specific employment by sex; this can show different proportions in employment for different labor force ages. 6 conclusions are drawn; 1) China leads the world in its enormous scale and high proportion of employed population; 2) there are, on the one hand, job-awaiting people--77% of which are young people 15-19 years of age, and on the other hand, over-aged employed people; 3) the economic structure of the Chinese economy is predominantly agricultural; 4) the employed population has a young age structure; 5) both the female employment and the sex structure of the employed population show that great improvement has been made for the Chinese women in their political, economical, and family status, but there still exists a big disparity when compared with men; and 6) the educational level of the employed population is universally low, with an illiteracy rate as high as 28.26%. In order to improve the educational and scientific level of the employed population, various kinds of educational undertakings must be run well.
The "most" in China's 1982 national census.
China took its 3rd national population census on July 1, 1982. Some interesting figures from the published data are: 1) the most populous province in China is Sichuan province with a total of 99,713,310 people, or 9.66% of China's total population; 2) with the exception of 3 municipalities directly controlled by the central government, the most densely populated province is Jiangsu, whose population density is 590 persons per square km; 3) the biggest national minority group in China is the Zhuang nationality whose total population is 13,378,162; 4) the highest sex ratio is 109 of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region; 5) since the year 1964, the biggest increase of relative volume of population is in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region--84.84% more in 1982 than in 1964; 6) the highest birth rate in 1981 was 31.5/1000 in the Tibetan Autonomous Region, and the lowest 16.14/1000 in Shanghai; 7) the highest death rate in 1981 was 9.29/1000 in the Tibetan Autonomous Region and the lowest 4.95/1000 in Heilungjiang province; 8) the highest natural population growth rate in 1981 was 23.57/1000 in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, and the lowest, 9.7/1000, in Shanghai; and 9) the highest illiteracy rate is 51.8% in Tibet, and the lowest 12.4% in Beijing.
Education in the United States: 1940-1983.
This report documents changes over time in US educational status, school enrollment, income by educational attainment, achievement test scores, student to teacher ratios, teacher salaries, and expenditures per pupil. Chapter 2 traces the large increase in educational attainment between 1940 and 1982 and the accompanying reduction in inequality of attainment. The relationship between rising levels of education and economic growth is also detailed. Chapter 3 1st presents data on trends and differentials in achievement test scores of US high school students. It concludes that the statistical evidence appears to support the popular notion that the quality of schooling has declined, especially during the 1970s. Chapter 4 surveys the trends in resource use and costs in both elementary and secondary schools and in colleges. A sharp uptrend in costs per student for public elementary and secondary schools that began in the early 1960s is observed. Chapter 5 analyzes the relationship between college education and the economy. Evidence on the change in the monetary gain from a college education from the mid-1950s to the mid-1970s 1970s is discussed. A long swing in the pecuniary return appears to have occurred over this period, as concerns about underinvestment in college education in the late 1950s and mid-1960s gave way to concerns about overinvestment in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Finally, chapter 6 presents a summary of findings and discusses some implications of the findings.
The effect of wives' employment on their family statuses.
Recently there has been a growing concern with the effect of wives' employment on their family statuses; however, the lack of any well-formulated framework to deal with family status hampers research on this topic. The author argues that Weber's view of family status can be used to guide research to theoretically grounded analyses and presents LISREL models reflecting this Weberian framework. Applying the models to Sewell-Hauser Wisconsin data, the author finds out that the significance of the wife's occupational status as a contributing factor to her family status is negligible, but that the effect of her earnings on family status is statistically indistinguishable from that of her husbands earnings, although wives contribute less than husbands to family income. It is also noted that the effects on family status of husband's and wife's educational attainments are nearly the same. (author's)
Urban systems and regional demographic characteristics.
This study examines the relationship between ecological structure and regional demographic characteristics. The 2 primary hypotheses derive from the ecological theory of urban systems ("systems of cities"): 1) regional demographic characteristics are determined by the roles which local areas perform in larger urban systems; and 2) the demographic consequences of community function are indirect and mediated by local social and economic conditions. Based on the 3 principal models of urban systems (that is, metropolitan dominance, central place, and economic base), community function is conceptualized as comprised of 3 distinct dimensions: 1) metropolitanism, 2) centrality, and 3) functional specialization. Each dimension is operationalized through the use of official data circa 1970, and the net effects of each on crude birth and death rates (1975) and percent change through net migration (1970-1975) are examined for the 171 Business Economic Area (BEA) regions in the coterminous US. Intervening variables examined are urban settlement, racial composition, age structure, educational composition, and economic characteistics. Findings suggest support for the 1st general hypothesis, but only support for the 2nd. The findings suggest that regional demographic differences are based on the structure of urban systems. (author's)
Age at immigration and education: further explorations.
Trends in the relationship between age at immigration and educational attainment are examined using age- and sex-specific data for Canada, 1881-1973. "Although initial analyses of data, collected for the [1973] Canadian Mobility Study, reveal a weak relationship between age at immigration and educational attainment, inclusion of a measure of periodicity in educational attainment models reveals age at immigration to have an effect comparable to that of family size on educational attainment. Given the strong periodicity effect, when age at immigration is excluded from the analysis, it is argued that the status attainment model, which best accounts for the educational attainment of native-born Canadians, also accounts best for the educational attainment of the foreign-born." (EXCERPT)
Job transfers: a neglected aspect of migration in Malaysia.
"This article examines the incidence of [job-related] transfers in Malaysia. The retrospective migration data from the Malaysia Family Life Survey [conducted in 1976-1977] are used to demonstrate that transfers comprise 18 percent of all migration in the country and that there has been a rise in the incidence of transfers over a 35 year period. Factors underlying this trend are outlined. Furthermore, significant differences in age, educational attainment and other characteristics between transferees and other types of migrants are identified and their implications discussed." (EXCERPT)
Population development and changes of China's minority nationalities.
41 minority nationalities were officially identified by the Chinese government in the 1953 census. According to the 1953 census, China's population numbered 579.6 million of these were minority nationalities. The 1982 census recorded the total population at 1.003 billion, an increase of 73.21% within 29 years, or an average annual increase of 19.12/1000. The Han nationality increased by 71.2/1000, while the population of the nationalities went up 90.4/1000. Between 1964 and 1982, the economy, culture, and health services have been steadily improved in the national areas. Family planning programs were not carried out until 1979 in some parts of the national areas; compared with the Han areas, the program was carried out with more flexibility and leniency. Thus the total fertility rate of minority women at childbearing ages is much higher than that of the Hans. The proportion of minorities to the total population has gradually increased from about 5.8% of the population in 1964 to 6.7% in 1982. The number of officially recognized minorities has increased from 41 in 1953 to 53 in 1964. Since 1949 the government has attached importance to the population development of the nationalities; more effective measures have been adopted for the development and prosperity of the minority nationalities. The 1982 census indicates that the minority population is 50.08 million. Minority areas have very uneven population distribution due to 1) differences in natural conditions and economic patterns and 2) different historical development. The population of minorities living scattered has increased from 14.74 million in 1980 to 17.16 million by 1982. The median age of minorities is 19.41 as opposed to 22.91 for the whole country. Minority culture and education, though greatly improved, still fall far short of the modernization and prosperity of all nationalities.
A preliminary analysis on China`s employed population.
China's 1982 population census provides detailed, comprehensive, and accurate data on the employed population. China leads the world both in scale and proportion of the employed population. However, as the national income per employed person is fairly low, it is essential to raise the labor efficiency of employed persons and to increase socioeconomic benefits for the rapid development of China's economy and to improve people's livelihoods. 77.1% of the people awaiting jobs in China are 15-19 years old. The high proportion of the 15-19 age group employed implies that a large proportion of this group does not have a chance to attend middle school. The economic structure of the Chinese economy is predominantly agricultural. The percentage of the employed population in the material production sector is extremely high; agriculture takes up most of the labor force and has the lowest productivity. The percentage of the employed population in non-material production sectors such as education, culture and art, scientific research, and health is too low. China's employed population has a young age structure. Manual workers are comparatively young, but mental laborers, particularly the responsible personnel of government agencies, party committees, people's organizations, enterprises, and institutions, are aging. Both female employment and the sex structure of the employed population show that Chinese women have greatly improved their political, economic, and family status, but a large disparity still exists when women are compared with men. The educational level of the employed population is universally low, with illiteracy as high as 28.26%. Among scientific and technical personnel, people with a college education comprise only 13.13%.
Statistical analysis of fertility in China.
Using fertility data from the household registration system, the 1982 national fertility survey, and the 1982 population census, this paper examines changing fertility levels in China. Fertility has declined substantially in China since 1963. The birth rate based on data from the household registration system dropped from a high level of 43/1000 in 1963 to 18/1000 by 1979. Fertility increased slightly in 1981-1982. These trends can also be seen in data from the 1982 national sample fertility survey and the 1982 census. The percentage of women currently married is relatively high in China, particularly in the fertile age groups 20-24, 25-29, and 30-34. Age-specific fertility rates for married women in these fertile age groups are already low; the rates for married women in higher age groups remain at relatively high levels. Therefore, the postponement of marriage and the resulting decline in percentages married of women in fertile age groups will affect future fertility trends. There are significant fertility differences between urban and rural areas, educational levels, and by agricultural or non-agricultural occupations of women. Urban fertility is much lower than rural fertility, but about 80% of the population lives in rural areas. Future trends in fertility may depend largely on how